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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 


H.  L.  I;:A.SSER 


^'|i3ZL.r>„r---k    ^=^^-- «. 


HAND  BOOK 

OF 

NATURAL  GAS 


BY 


HENRY  P.  WESTCOTT 

MEMBER       A.      S.        M.      E.       AND 
NATURAL     GAS    ASSOCIATION 


SECOND  EDITION 


1  i>  1  o 


PUBLISHED  BY 


METRIC    METAL    WORKS 

ERIE,     PENNSYLVANIA 


Copyright,  1915 
By  METRIC  METAL  WORKS 


Press  of 

ASHBY  PRINTING  CO. 

Erie  and  Pittsburgh 


tngineering 
Library 


PREFAC E 


THE  need  of  a  Hand  Book  containing  authoritative 
information  on  High  and  Low  Pressure  Construction 
in  the  use  of  Natural  Gas,  and  providing  information  and 
suggestions  of  a  practical  nature  for  those  engaged  in  field 
work  was  wholly  responsible  for  the  publication  of  the  first 
edition. 

From  the  splendid  reception  accorded  the  first  edition, 
the  publisher  feels  that,  with  the  additional  information  and 
data  available,  a  carefully  revised  second  edition  is  demanded. 
Some  errors  that  crept  into  the  first  edition  have  been  cor- 
rected and  new  tables  with  many  pages  of  material  hitherto 
unpublished  broadens  the  scope  of  the  work  and  brings  it 
completely  up  to  date. 

Included  are  the  tables,  formulae  and  data  prepared  by 
the  late  F.  H.  Oliphant,  and  which,  for  purposes  of  easy 
reference,  are  printed  in  connection  with  the  subjects  to 
which  they  apply 

The  constant  aim  throughout  this  work  has  been  useful- 
ness. No  effort  or  expense  has  been  spared  to  insure  its 
data  and  information  being  accurate  in  every  detail,  and 
absolutely  dependable. 

The  information  presented  is  taken  from  the  experience 
of  the  most  active  and  successful  operators  in  the  business, 
as  well  as  from  the  author's  own  practical  experience.  It  is 
only  from  such  data  that  a  practical  guide  for  practical  men 
can  be  built. 

The  author  and  publisher  make  grateful  acknowledgment 
of  assistance  generously  given  by  gas  men  in  every  section  of 
the  country,  and  appreciativclv  thank  every  one  who,  by 
word,  act  or  suggestion,  has  contributed  to  the  betterment 
of  this  Hand  Book. 


733349 


TAULE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface iii 

PART  ONE 

GENRRAL— GEOLOGY 

The  Earth's  P'ormation  Briefly  Told 1 

Geological  Formation  of  the  U.  S 2 

Relative  Location  of  the  Large  Gas  Areas  to  the  Old  Gulf .  3 

Origin  of  Natural  Gas  and  Oil 3 

Geological  Chart 5 

Volcanic  Origin  of  Natural  Gas  and  Oil 6-30 

Early  Geological  History  of  Western  New  York  and  Ontario  30 

Origin  of  Names  Applied  to  New  York  State  Formations.  ...  31 

Geology  of  the  Mid-Continental  Oil  and  Gas  Field 31-4S 

(with  tii'o  maps) 

The  Mississippian  Floor 32 

Cherokee  Shales 34 

Sands  in  the  Cherokee  vShales 34 

Fort  Scott  Limestones 35 

Pleasanton  Shale 35 

Bethany  Limestone  Series 36 

Tola  Limestones 36 

Lane  vShales 37 

Allen  and  Stanton  Limestones 37 

Lawrence  Shales 37 

Oread  Limestones 38 

Pawhuska  Limestone 39 

Wabaunsee  Stage 39 

Permian 40-42 

Points  of  Difference 42-44 

Structure 44 

The  Healdton  Area 46 

Wichita  Falls— Electra  Field 46 

Corsicana  Field 47 

Gas  Bearing  Strata 48 

Remarkable  Natural  Gas  Reservoirs  in  North  America 48-50 

Productive  Natural  Gas  Horizons  (with  table) 50 

Table  of  Productive  Natural  Gas  Horizons 51-55 

HISTORY 

The  First  Oil  Well 56 

History  of  Natural  Gas 57 

First  L'^se  of  Artificial  Gas 58 

Natural  Gas  in  Fredonia,  N.  Y 58 

Deepest  Drilled  Wells 59-62 

A  "Freak"  Gas  Well 62 


TABLE         OF         CONTENTS 


PAGE 

ATMOSPHERE 

Altitudes  and  Atmospheric  Pressures  of  Gas  Fields  in  the 

U.  S 64 

Temperatures  of  Various  Gas  Fields  and  Cities  Using  Natural 

Gas 65 

Atmospheric  Pressure 66 

Table  Showing  Weight  of  Gas  and  Air 67 

STATISTICS 

Production   and    Consumption   of   Natural   Gas   from    1884 

to  1913 68-72 

Well  Record  in  the  U.  S 73 

Acreage  Controlled  b}'  Natural  Gas  Companies  in  1912-13.  74 

Production  in  Appalachian  Field  in  1913  and  1914 75 

PART  TWO— PROPERTIES  OF  GASES 

Air 76 

Hydrogen 76 

Olefiant  Gas 77 

Methane 77 

Ethane 77 

Carbonic  Oxide 77 

Carbon  Dioxide : 77 

Oxygen 78 

Nitrogen 78 

Hydrocarbons 78 

Illuminants 78 

Natural  Gas 78 

Oil  Gas 78 

Coal  Gas 78 

Table  of  Commercial  Gas  Analyses 79 

Table  of  Combustible  Gas  Mixtures 79 

Coke  Oven  Gas 80 

Water  Gas 80 

Natural  Gas  Analysis 80 

To  Obtain  Sample  of  Gas 80 

Explosive  Mixture  with  Gas  from  the  Petrolia  (Tex.)  Field.  81 

Candle  Power , 82 

British  Thermal  Units 82 

Hinman-Junker  Calorimeter 83 

Specific  Gravity.  .■ 85 

Specific  Gravity  Apparatus 85 

Heating  \'alue  and  Specific  Gravity 86 

Illuminating  Properties  of  Natural  Gas 87 

Tests  to  Determine  Poisonous  Gases  in  Natural  Gas  from 

Caddo  (La.)  Field 88-91 

PhvsiologicalTestof  Natural  Gas  fron  the  Caddo  (La.)  Field  92-94 

Heat  Facts 94 

Radiation  of  Heat 95 

Gas  Analyses  from  \"arious  Gas  Fields 96-101 

vi 


TABLE         OF         CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Gas  Analysis  from  the  California  Field 102 

Analyses  of  European  Gas 103 

— of  Gases  from  Rivers,  Lakes,  Marshes,  etc 104 

— of  Gases  from  German  Springs 105 

■ — of  Gases  from  Volcanoes  and  Geysers 106 

— of  Gases  from  Clefts  in  Lava  of  Vesuvius 106 

PART  THREE-FIELD  WORK 

Lease 107 

Well  Contract 109 

Well  Location 109 

Derrick  or  Rig 109 

Derrick  and  Drilling  Outfit  with  List  of  Parts 112 

Specifications   of  Material   Required   to   Build   a   Complete 

Double-Tug  Standard  Rig 114-116 

Specifications  of  Material  Required  to  Build  a  California 

Rig 117-119 

Specifications  of  Material   Required  to  Build   a   California 

Combination  vStandard  and  Rotary  Rig 119-122 

Hydraulic  Rotary  Rig 123 

Specifications  of  Material   Required   to   Build   a   California 

Heavy  Rig 124-126 

Specifications  of  Material   Required   to   Build  a   California 

Rotary  Rig 127 

Pole  Tool  Rig  ( Canadian) 128 

Bull  Wheel 129 

Bull  Rope 129 

Walking  Beam 129 

Complete  String  of  Drilling  Tools 130 

Drilling 131 

Table  of  Dimensions  of  Drive  Pipe 131 

Wood  Conductor  Pipe 133 

Table  of  Sizes  of  Casing 134 

Weight  of  Water  in  Pipe  of  Diff"erent  Diameters  in  Lengths 

of  One  Foot 135 

Water  Pressure 135 

Demonstration  of  Mud  Laden  Fluid  Method  as  F^mployed 

to  Conserve  the  Natural  Gas  Resources  in  Drilling  for 

Oil ^137 

Demonstration  at  the  Greis  Well 137  141 

Results  Obtained  bv  the  Test 141 

Record  of  Well  from  Top  of  Wheeler  Sand  to  Oil  Sand 142 

Core  Drill 143-145 

Drilling  Wells  in  Lake  Erie 145-149 

Well  Record 149 

vShooting 150 

Nitroglycerin 151 

Solidified  Nitroglycerin 152 

Torpedo 153 

Shot  Anchor 154 

Go-Devil 154 


TABLE         OF         CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Jack  Squib 154 

Cleaning  Out 154 

Tubing  and  Packer 156-158 

Table  of  Sizes  of  Tubing 159 

Elevators 159 

Dry  Holes 159 

Well  Connections 161 

Water  Propositions 161-163 

Pumping  Powers 163 

Pumping  Heads 163 

Capping 164 

Gas  Well  Drip 164 

Gas  Well  Lead  Lines 166 

Care  of  Gas  Wells 166-168 

Salt  Water  Propositions 168-172 

Use  of  Abandoned  Gas  Wells 172 

PART  FOUR 

Basis  of  Measurement  of  Natural  Gas 178 

Pitot  Tube  for  Testing  the  Open  Flow  of  Gas  Wells 174 

Pitot  Tube  Table  for  Testing  of  Gas  Wells 176 

Minute  Pressure  Testing  of  Gas  \\'ells  {with  tables) 178-181 

Open  Flow  Capacity  of  Gas  Wells  [unth  chart) 182 

Rock  Pressure 183 

Working  Capacity  of  Gas  Wells  under  Pressure  {with  table)  183 

PART  FIVE— PIPE  LINE  CONvSTRUCTION 

Surveying 185 

Construction  Camp 185 

Ditching 187 

Blasting  and  Shooting 188 

Preparing  a  Shot 188 

SCREW  PIPE  LINE 

Pipe  L'nloading 189 

Tallying 189 

Hauling 189 

Table    of   Standard    Dimensions,    Capacity   and   Weight   of 

Wrought  Iron  Pipe  for  Steam,  Gas,  Oil  or  Water 190 

Stringing 190 

Table  of  Standard  Line  Pipe 191 

Swabbing 191 

Laying 191-194 

Painting 194 

Laying  Pipe  in  Level  Country 194 

Laying  Pipe  in  Rough  Country 194 

Bending  Screw  Pipe 196 

Rivers  and  Creeks 196 

Railroad  Crossings 198 

Small  Gas  Lines 198 

viii 


TABLE         OF        CONTENTS 


PLAIX  END  PIPK  PAGE 

Plain  End  Pipe 200 

Hauling  Plain  End  Pipe 200 

vStringing 201 

Bending 201 

Laying 202-205 

Creeks  and  Water  Soaked  Ground 206 

Rough  Country 206 

Angle  Couplings 206 

Inspection  and  Leaks 207 

Covering • 207 

PIPE  LINE  WORK 

Inspection  After  Gas  Line  is  Completed 209 

Line  Walking 209 

Line  Loss  Percentage 209 

High  Pressure  Pipe  Line  Leakage 210-212 

Water  in  Pipe  Lines 212 

Fires  on  High  Pressure  Gas  Lines  Due  to  Leaks  or  Blow-outs  213 

Break  in  High  Pressure  Line 213 

Pipe  Line  Wash-out  across  Red  River 215 

Blow-offs  and  Drips 215-217 

High  Pressure  Taps 217 

Gates  and  Fittings 218 

Gauges 219 

House  Regulators 220 

PART  SIX— CAPACITIES  OF  PIPE  LINES 

Friction 222 

Formulas  for  Pipe  Line  Cajiacities 222 

Tables  A,  B,  C  and  D 223-233 

Reduction  in  Pressure  of  Natural  Gas  in  Pipes.  Owing  to 

Fittings 233 

Table  of  Multipliers  for  Different  Specific  Gravities 234 

Pipe  Capacity 234 

Tables  for  Computing  the  Flow  of  Natural  Gas  in  Pipe  Lines  235 

Capacities  of  Pipe  Lines 236-324 

PART  SEVEN— COMPRESSION  OF  NATURAL  GAS 

Description 325 

Object  of  Compressors 325 

Table  of  Indicated  Horse  Power  on  Compressor  Piston  per 

Million  Cubic  Feet  of  Natural  Gas 333 

Booster 337 

Number  of  Compressor  Stations.  Horse  Power,  etc 337 

PART  EIGHT— MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS 
IN  PIPE  LINES 

Henri  Pitot 338 

PitotTube 339 


TABLE         OF         CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Measurement  of  Natural  Gas  with  Pitot  Tubes 339-346 

Portable  Pitot  Tube 346-348 

Orifice  Meter 348-350 

Orifices 351 

Recording  Difi"erential  Gauges 352 

Table  of  Maximum  and  Minimum  Capacities  of  Orifices.  .  .  353 

Mercury  Float  Differential  Gauge 355 

Static  Pressure  Recording  Gauge  for  Orifice  Meters 356 

Information  Necessary  in  Ordering  Orifice  Meters 356 

LARGE  CAPACITY  METER 

Large  Capacity  Meter 358  362 

Range  of  Accuracy  of  Large  Capacity  Meter  {with  table) ....  362 
Tables  to  Determine  the  Proper  Size  Meter,  in  Measuring 

Low  and  High  Pressure  Gas 365 

Setting  for  Six-inch  Large  Capacity  Meter 366 

Proving  Large  Capacity  Meters 367 

Pressure  Testing  of  Large  Capacity  Meters 367 

Over  Capacity  in  Large  Capacity  Meters 367 

Table  of  Pressures  for  Testing  with  Funnel  Meter 368 

Table  Giving  Percentage  with  Correcting  Facts  for  Testing 

with  Funnel 371 

Chart  to  Determine  the  A'olume  of  Low  Pressure  Gas  or  Air 

a    Large    Capacity    Meter    Will    Measure    at    Different 

High  Pressures 372 

Installation 372 

Cleaning 373 

Bj'-pass 373 

Turning  Gas  Into  a  Meter 374 

Proper  Sized  Meter  to  Install  Where  Gas  is  Used  to  Generate 

Power  Either  in  a  Gas  Engine  or  Under  Steam  Boilers.  375 

Condensation 376 

Drain  Cocks 376 

Lighting  Measuring  Stations 376 

Large  Capacity  Meter  Gaskets 377 

To  Read  a  Large  Capacity  Meter 377 

Field  Testing 377 

Funnel  Meter 378 

Large  Capacity  Meter  for  Measuring  Compressed  Air 380 

Table  to  Determine  the  Proper  Size  Meter  to  be  Used  in 

Measuring  Compressed  Air • 381 

Recording  Gauge 382 

Volume  and  Pressure  Recording  Gauge 383 

PART  NINE— DENSITY  OF  GASES 

Robert  Boyle 385 

Edmond  Mariotte 385 

Jacques  Alexander  Cesar  Charles 386 

Bovle's  and  Mariotte's  Law 386 

Charles  Law 386 

Expansion  or  Contraction  of  Natural  Gas  Due  to  Change  in 

Temperature 386 

X 


TABLE         OF         CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Low  Pressure  Basis 387 

Density  Changes  in  Gas  Volumes 387-389 

Formula    for    Determining    the    Quantity    of    Natural    Gas 

When  Measured  Above  Normal  Pressure 389 

Multiplier  Tables 391-395 

PART  TEN— REGULATION  OF  GAS 

Regulators 396 

High  Pressure  Regulators 397 

Intermediate  Pressure  Regulators 397 

Low  Pressure  Regulators 398 

Index  to  Parts  of  Low  Pressure  Regulators 398 

Installing 399 

Regulator  Diaphragms 399 

Regulator  House 400 

Regulators  and  Plain  End  Pipe 400 

Sheet  Iron  Heater  for  Gas  Line 400 

Care  of  Regulators 400 

Heating 401 

Regulator  By-Pass 401 

Grinding  Valves 401 

PART  ELEVEN— DISTRIBUTION  OF  GAS 

Description  of  Low  Pressure  System 403 

Daily  Peak  Load 404 

Monthly  Peak  Load 405 

Peak  Load 406 

Construction  of  Low  Pressure  System 406 

Mapping 406 

Size  of  Mains 406 

Table  Showing  the  Approximate  Discharge  of  Gas  in  Differ- 
ent Lengths  and  Diameters  of  Pipe 407 

Welding  Gas  Mains 408-410 

Low  Pressure  Main  Marker 410 

Regulator  Station  or  Feeding  Point 410 

Low  Pressure  Regulator  Station  or  Building 411 

Oil  Safety  Tank 412 

Turning  Gas  Into  a  Low  Pressure  System 413 

Testing  Low  Pressure  System 413 

Leaks 414 

Electrolysis 414 

Electrolytic  Mitigating  System 414^16 

Electrolysis  Remedial  Measures 417-419 

Fire  Alarm  in  Gas  Office 419 

Gauge  Alarm 419 

vStealing  Gas 419 

Suggestions  to  Gas  Companies  and  Employees 420 

Wireless  Pipe  Locator 421 

Purifiers  for  Natural  Gas  for  Domestic  Service 423 

.  Safety  or  Pop  Valves 423 

xi 


TABLE         OF        CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Low  Pressure  Gauges 424 

Syphon  or  "U"  Gauges 424-426 

Differential  Gauges 426 

Table  of  Equivalents  of  Ounces,   per  sq.   in.,   in  inches  of 

Height  of  Columns  of  Water  and  Mercury 427 

SERVICES  AND  HOUSE  PIPING 

Tapping  Services 428 

Table  of  Proper  Sized  Tap  Drills  to  be  Used  for  the  DilTerent 

Sized  Pipes 428 

vServices 429 

vSteel  Pipe 429 

Testing  House  Piping 429 

Gas  Proving  Pump  and  Gauge 430 

Rules  and  Regulations  for  Gas  Fitting 430  434 

Table  of  Capacities  of  Thin  Orifices 435 

PART  TWELVE— INCOME  AND  OFFICE  SUGGESTIONS 

Income 436 

Table — Percentage  of  Natural  Gas  Sold  for  Domestic  Pur- 
poses Each  Month  in  the  Year  1908  in  Three  Cities  in 

Kansas 436 

Table  Showing  Number  of  Domestic  Consumers  for  Towns 

and  Cities  of  Different  Population 437 

Application  for  Gas  Service  to  be  Laid 438 

Application  for  Gas 439 

Domestic  Meter  Installation  Record 440 

Meter  Deposit  Record  Card 440 

Meter  Reader's  Record  Sheet 441 

Postal  Card  Gas  Bill  for  Monthly  Readings 442 

Postal  Card  Gas  Bill  for  Continuous  Meter  Reading 443 

Office  Gas  Bill  Card 444 

Notice  Requesting  Payment  of  Discount  When  Remittance 

Without  Discount  Was  Received 444 

Foreman's  Report  Blank  for  Gas  Fitting  and  Meter  Setting 

Job 445 

Foreman's  Report  Blank  for  Installing  Service 446 

Reverse  Side  of  Foreman's  Report  Blank  for  Service  Line.  .  447 

PART  THIRTEEN— DOMESTIC  METER 

Flat  Rate  System 448 

Domestic  Gas  Meter 449-451 

Reading  a  Domestic  Gas  Meter 451 

Continuous  Meter  Reading 453 

Capacity  of  Domestic  Meters 453 

Differential  Pressure 454 

Installing  Domestic  Meter 454 

Disconnecting  Domestic  Meter 455-457 

Proving  Domestic  Meter 458 

Repairing  Domestic  Meters 459 

xii 


TABLE         OF        CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Tin  Meter  Repairing 459 

Instructions  for  Setting  Valves  in  Tin  or  Slide  Valve  Meter.  460 

Diaphragm  Oil 460 

List  of  Tin  Meter  Parts 462 

Rating  of  Tin  Meter  Capacities 462 

Standard  Meter  Prover 463 

Cubic  Foot  Bottle 464-466 

Correction  of  Erratic  Meters  {with  tables) 466 

Table  of  Multipliers  for  Correction  of  Erratic  Meters 468 

Complaint  Meter 469-471 

•    PART  FOURTEEN— DOMESTIC  CONSUMPTION  OF  GAS 

High  Gas  Bills 472^74 

Proper  Color  of  Flame  in  Stove  Burners 474 

Gas  Range  Burner  Tests 475 

Lights 476 

Summary  of  House  Heating  Furnace  Tests 476 

Suggestions  for  Domestic  Consumers 477-479 

Cooking  and  Heating  with  Natural  Gas  When  Pressure  is 

Low  or  a  Shortage  of  Gas  Exists 479 

Comparison  of  Domestic  Meter  Bills  by  the  Consumer 480 

Water  Condensation  from  Burnt  Gases 481 

Incandescent  Light  Mantles 481 

PART  FIFTEEN— INDUSTRIAL  CONSUMPTION  OF  GAS 

Comparative  Fuel  Value  of  Coal,  Oil  and  Natural  Gas.  ....  483 
Facts  and  Figures  about  Natural  Gas  as  Used  in  Various 

Industries 484 

Carbon  Black 485 

BOILER  BURNER  INSTALLATION 

Boiler  Burners  for  Natural  Gas 486 

Temperature  of  Natural  Gas  Combustion 486 

Installation  of  Natural  Gas  Burners  Under  Boilers 489-492 

Use  of  Steam  or  Compressed  Air  in  Boiler  Burner  Installa- 
tions   492 

Boiler  Burner  Installation  with  List  of  Fittings 493^96 

Draft ■ 496 

Draft  Gauge 498 

Operation  of  Natural  Gas  Burners  for  Boiler  Use 498-500 

Some    Causes   Responsible    for   Failures   with   Natural   Gas 

Burners 500 

Boiler  Testing 500-505 

Testing  Gas  Burners 505 

Stack  Gas  Analysis 505 

Sampling  Apparatus 505 

Gas  Pressure 506 

Results 506 

Boiler  Test  of  Natural  Gas 507 


TABLE        OF        CONTENTS 


PAGE 

GAS  ENGINES 

Average  Amount  of  Natural  Gas  Required  to  Operate  Gas 

Engines 509 

Horse  Power  of  Gas  Engines 509 

Size  of  Gas  Supply  Pipe 510 

Length  and  Diameter  of  Service  for  Gas  Engines 510 

Exhaust  Pipe 510 

Circulating  Water 511 

Comparative   Actual   Operating   Costs   of  100  h.    p.   in   the 

Various  Practical  Forms  of  Power  Now  Available 511-515 

Transverse  Current  Heaters  for  Gas  Engines 517 

Table  Showing  Efficiency  of  Transverse  Current  Heater.  .  .   518-519 

PART  SIXTEEN— CONDENSATION  OF  GASOLINE 
FROM  NATURAL  GAS 

Gasoline  Gas  Industry 520-528 

Production  of  Gasoline  from  Natural  Gas  in  1912  and  1913.  529 

Analyses  of  Natural  Gas  for  Gasoline  Content 531 

Experiments  in  Liquefying  Crude  Natural  Gas 532 

Chart  Showing  Different  Hydrocarbons  in  Light  and  Heavy 

Gases 533 

Analysis  of  Natural  Gas  for  Gasoline  Content 534-538 

Use  of  Alcohol  as  a  Solvent 538 

Orsat  Apparatus  for  Determination  of  Carbon  Dioxide  and 

Oxygen 538 

Properties  of  Seven  Paraffin  Hydrocarbons 539 

Specific  Gravity  Outfit ' 540 

Interpretation  of  Results  of  Tests 541 

Compression    and    Liquefication    of    the    Constituents    of 

Natural  Gas  in  Plant  Operation 543 

Three  Commercial  Processes 543 

Results  of  Tests  of  the  Grade  and  Quantity  of  Gasoline 

Produced   When    Crude   Natural   Gas   is   Subjected   to 

Different  Pressures 543 

Air  in  Casing  Head  Gas 544 

Orifice  Well  Tester 545 

Tables  of  Capacities  of  Orifice  Well  Tester 546-548 

Pipe  Line  Capacities  Under  Minus  Pressure  Conditions.  .  .   549-563 
Multipliers  to  be  L'sed  for  Gas  of  Specific  Gravities  Other 

than  .6 563 

Measuring  Gasoline  Gas 563 

Table    to    Determine    Proper    Sized    Meter    for   Measuring 

Gasoline  Gas 565 

Volume  and  Pressure  Recording  Gauge 566 

Condensation  in  Meters 567 

Testing  Large  Capacity  Meters  with  Gasoline  Gas 568 

Construction  of  Gasoline  Plant 568-570 

Description  of  Ordinarv  Ammonia  Refrigerating  Machine.  .   570-572 

Lighting  Plant 573 

Gas  Relief  Regulators 573 

xiv 


TABLE         OF         CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Percentage  of  Vapor  Condensed  by  Compression  and  Cooling  573 
Results  of  Analyses  of  Gases  from  DifTerent  vStages  of  Plant 

Operation 574 

Table  of  Results  of  Laboratory  Tests  of  Samples  of  Gas 

from  DifTerent  Gasoline  Plants 575 

vSpecific    Gravities    and    Absorption    Numbers    of    Natural 

Gases  Used  for  Condensation  of  Natural  Gas 576 

Low  Explosive  Limits  for  Paraffin  Gases  and  \'apors 577 

Solution  of  Gas  Condensates 577 

Kvajioration  Losses  in  Blending  {ivith  table) 578 

Hauling  Gasoline 579 

Market  for  High  Gravity  Gasoline 580 

Pressures    Generated    by    Heating    Gasoline    and    Confined 

Liquefied  Natural  Gas 580 

Table  of  Heat  Values  of  the  Lighter  Hydrocarbon  Products 

from  Crude  Oil 581 

Effects  of  Difi"erent  Weather  Conditions  on  Manufacturing 

Gasoline 582 

Operating  Cost 582 

Shipping  Gasoline 582 

Safety  Valves  for  Gasoline  Tank  Cars 582 

Rules  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 583 

Regulations  for  the  Transportation  on  Railroads  of  Natural 

Gas  Gasoline 583-585 

Liquefied  Gas — A  By^Product  from  Gasoline  Gas 585-588 

PART  SEVENTEEN— POWER 

Horse  Power 589 

Steam 590 

Steam  Horse  Power 591 

Table  of  Areas  of  Circles 592 

To  Find  the  Horse  Power  of  a  Steam  Engine 593 

Directions  for  Determining  the  Correct  Setting  of  Engine 

Valves 593 

Electrical  Horse  Power 593 

For  Every-day  Use  in  an  Engine  Room 594-595 

PART  EIGHTEEN— MISCELLANEOUS 

Tank  for  Separating  Gas  from  Oil  Flowing  from  Well 596 

Table  of  Capacities  of  Tanks 598 

Melting  Point  and  Expansion  of  Metals 600 

Beaume  Scale  and  Specific  Gravity  Equivalents  [with  tabic)  600-601 

Specific  Gravities  of  Liquids 602 

Weight    and    Tensile    Strength    of    Wood,    Iron    and    Other 

Materials 602 

Weights  of  Round  Iron  a^id  Steel  per  Lineal  Foot  in  Pounds  603 

Conversion  Tables 603-605 

Natural  Gas  Association 606 


PART   ONE 

General 

GEOLOGY— ORIGIN  OF  NATURAL  GAvS  AND  OIL- 
GEOLOGY  OF  THE  MID-CONTINENTAL  OIL 
ANDGAvS  FIELD— GOVERNMENT  STATLSTlCvS— 
HISTORY— PRODUCTIVE  NATURAL  GAS  HORI- 
ZONS—DEEP WELLS— ALTITUDES  AND  ATMOS- 
PHERIC PRESvSURES  OF  VARIOUS  GAS  FIELDS- 
TEMPERATURE  RECORD  OF  VARIOUS  GAS 
FIELDS. 

In  view  of  the  many  theories  that  have  been  advanced 
regarding  the  original  source  of  natural  gas,  we  herewith 
submit  a  paper  written  by  the  late  Frank  Westcott  of  Alden, 
New  York,  who  made  a  life  work  of  the  study  of  natural 
gas  from  a  geological  standpoint.  His  observ^ations  were 
obtained  from  a  study  of  rock  formations  as  well  as  the  logs 
of  many  gas  wells  tiiroughout  western  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ontario,  Ohio  and  West  Virginia,  and  several  other 
states. 

The  paper  is  advanced  to  place  before  the  gas  fraternitv 
a  reasonable  view,  not  only  of  the  possible  source  of  natural 
gas  but  also  of  the  geological  formation  of  the  earth. 

The  Earth's  Formation  Briefly  Told — "What  we  now 
call  tile  earth  was,  in  tiie  l)eginning,  a  gaseous  bodv  or  a 
molten  chaotic  mass  probably  thrown  off  by  some  planet, 
that  through  a  long  process  of  cooling  gradually  took  shape 
as  a  globe  with  a  thin  hard  crust. 

The  hard  crust,  whicii  was  of  sligtit  thickness  in  the 
beginning,  but  increasing  as  ages  passed,  was  made  up 
principally  of  granite  formation  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
floor  of  the  earth.  At  this  period  there  was  neitiier  animal 
nor  vegetable  life  existing,  as  the  heat  was  too  intense;  gas 
and  oil  were  out  of  the  question. 

1 


GENERAL 


The  transformation  from  a  gaseous  body  to  a  hard- 
crusted  globe  probably  covered  a  period  of  many  millions 
of  years.  During  this  period  there  were  no  mountains  nor 
rivers  and  the  earth  had  not  begun  to  shrink. 

As  ages  passed  and  the  globe  cooled  sufficiently  to  allow 
precipitation  of  the  vapor  surrounding  it,  the  Potsdam  and 
the  Trenton  rocks  began  to  form  on  top  of  the  granite,  in  the 
order  named.  The  earth  began  to  shrink,  and  it  was  this 
shrinking  of  the  crust,  due  to  its  loss  of  heat,  that  created 
the  mountain  ranges  and  the  high  deviated  plateaus,  and 
brought  to  the  surface  portions  of  the  lower  layers  of  the 
earth's  crust,  carrying  with  them  the  metals  now  being 
mined.  Had  this  upheaval  not  taken  place  these  metals 
could  never  have  been  reached. 

The  earth's  crust  is  supposed  to  be  from  twenty-five  to 
thirth-five  miles  thick.  The  increase  of  temperature  toward 
the  interior  varies  at  different  points  on  the  globe  as  shown 
by  tests  made  in  mining  shafts  and  deep  wells.  At  Butte, 
Montana,  the  copper  mining  shafts  show  an  increase  of  1 
deg.  for  each  52  feet  descent.  The  average  increase  of  tem- 
perature has  shown  1  deg.  fahr.  for  each  60  to  64  feet  descent 
toward  the  center  of  the  earth. 

The  cooling  and  shrinking  of  the  earth  is  still  going  on, 
which  accounts  to  some  extent  for  the  earthquakes,  volcanic 
eruptions  and  other  minor  changes  taking  place  in  the  crust. 

About  eight-elevenths  of  the  earth's  surface  is  sunken 
below  the  rest  and  covered  with  salt  water. 

After  the  earth  has  become  a  cold  body,  too  cold  for 
habitation,  it  will  appear  as  a  bright  moon  to  some  other 
planet. 

Geological  Formation  of  the  United  States — The  large 
fossil  remains  found  in  Wyoming  and  the  Black  Hills  of 
South  Dakota  clearly  prove  that  this  section  first  appeared 
above  the  sea. 


GENERAL 

The  Gulf  of  Mexico  extended  up  to  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountams  and  the  Black  Hills  on  the  northwest  and  to  the 
Adirondack  and  Appalachian  Mountains  on  the  east  and 
northeast.  The  northern  shore  of  this  original  gulf  extended 
westwardly  from  the  Adirondack  Alountains  through  western 
New  York  and  Ontario.  This  period  was  ages  before  the 
formation  of  the  Great  Lakes,  Niagara  Falls  and  the  Niagara 
River. 

As  the  old  gulf  receded  toward  the  present  gulf,  it  re- 
ceded in  the  form  of  a  large  bay,  which  accounts  for  the  -45 
deg.  line  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  which  the  oil  men  of 
that  state  so  successfully  followed  in  their  operations  for  oil. 

The  Ozark  ^lountains  were  an  island  thrown  up  in  this 
large  arm  of  the  ocean  by  the  shrinking  of  the  earth's  crust. 
The  tendency  of  this  upheaval  was  to  divide  the  gulf  into 
two  smaller  arms  or  elongated  bays. 

Following  the  formation  of  the  different  rocks,  the  earth 
was  so  hot  at  the  equator  that  life  could  not  exist  and  at  the 
poles  the  temperature  corresponded  very  much  to  the  tropical 
temperature  of  the  present  day.  This  statement  is  borne 
out  by  the  fmding  of  petrified  animal  remains  and  tropical 
plants  in  the  arctic  regions.  As  the  earth  cooled  at  the  poles 
it  kept  driving  animal  life  toward  the  equator  and  the  time 
will  come  when  even  the  equator  will  be  so  cold  that  life 
cannot  exist. 

Relative  Location  of  the  Large  Gas  Areas  to  the  Old 
Gulf — The  present  Pennsylvania,  West  X'irginia  and  Ohio 
gas  fields  are  located  on  what  was  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
old  gulf.  The  New  York  and  Ontario  fields  were  located  on 
the  northern  shore,  and  the  mid-continent  field  was  located 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  peninsula  formed  by  the  upheaval 
of  the  Ozark  ^Mountains  in  the  center  of  the  old  gulf. 

Origin  of  Natural  Gas  and  Oil — The  lowest  order  of 
animal  life  came  into  existence  with  the  formation  of  the 
Potsdam  and  Trenton  rocks,  and  the  source  or  origin  of 


GENERAL 


natural  gas  and  oil  must  be  attributed  to  the  burying  and 
subsequent  decay  of  these  mussels  and  other  invertebrates. 

During  this  age  there  were  periods  of  storm  and  calm 
on  the  globe.  When  the  sea  was  smooth,  the  sand  was  laid 
down  loosely  and  when  it  became  disturbed  the  sands  were 
filled  with  either  silicate  or  lime  and  cemented  together. 

In  the  first  case,  the  spaces  between  the  little  pebbles 
became  resen^oirs  for  gas  or  oil  generated  by  decayed  animal 
life,  while  in  the  second  case,  when  the  sand  was  cemented, 
there  was  no  room  for  such  lodgment  for  either  gas  or  oil. 

Extreme  storms  during  this  period  laid  down  what  is 
called  tlie  "shell,"  which  was  thoroughly  cemented,  and  which 
held  down  the  gas  or  oil  until  the  ingenuity  of  mankind 
drilled  through  it. 

Oil  is  a  product  of  natural  gas  caused  by  the  pressure 
and  confinement  of  the  gases  in  the  rocks,  which  are  laid 
down  like  shingles  on  a  roof.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
gas  vein  but  there  is  a  gas  reservoir. 

Though  natural  gas  has  its  origin  or  source  in  the  Pots- 
dam and  Trenton  rocks,  it  may  have  to  travel  many  miles  to 
find  an  opening  into  an  upper  stratum. 

Coal  and  gas  or  oil  have  absolutely  no  connection  with 
each  other,  as  gas  and  oil  were  in  existence  millions  of  years 
before  the  coal  measures  were  laid  down.  For  illustration — 
the  gas  of  Alden,  New  York,  coming  from  the  Medina  sand- 
stone and  free  from  petroleum,  is  smokeless.  If  the  coal 
measures  ever  existed  in  this  locality  they  would  have  been 
a  mile  and  a  half  in  the  air. 

Shale  was  originally  soft  clay. 

Rarely  can  surface  indications  of  either  oil  or  gas  be 
relied  upon." 


^'. 


c 


GEOLOGICAL    CHART 


Archaen— Iror 

Age-Granite.  Gneiss,  Mica,  Schist,  Limestone,  Crys 

,Ca„.„. 

!  Early-Lower 
ILatter^orL-pper-Potsdam 

Lower  Si 

(Canadian-Calciferious  sandstone  iN.  New  Y 

urian  iTrenton  limestone  (New  Yorkl.  The  Galena  or 

lead    bearing    of    Illinois    and    Wisconsin    i 

rpper  Trenton,  Utica  shale,  and  Hudson  shal 

fSubcarbaiiiferous 

Carbonic  Carboniferous— Coal  periods  ICrickets 

(Amphibians)  i  i  Amphibians'!  Spiders 

(Coal  plants)  I  Flies  (M: 

I  Permian— Red  sj 

[     ormarlites.  (N 

fTriassic    [Crocodiles 
1  I  Dinosaurs 

ern  Jurassic    [Lizards 


lant  beds 


't'^liMapr 


•,  Coarse  sand-stone  and  conglomerate  I-^tJj^„',„    ^        |-!  Crocodiles 

led  Dinosaurian 
(Wasatch  Mountains)  '  ;r.uwcr  [  Cormorants  and  Waden 


[Eocene — Hog,  Rhinoceros 
[Tertiary  JMiocene— Beech,  Oak,  Pcpla 
[pliocene— Horse,  Stag,  Antel 
Cenozoic   ■, 

[Glacial 
[Quaternary  ]Champlain 
[Recent 


GENERAL 


"»"'iu,i,iip 


GENERAL 


VOLCANIC    ORIGIN    OF    NATURAL    GAS    AND    OIL. 

By    Eugene    Coste,    E.   M.,    Toronto,    Ont. 

In  the  following  article  on  the  Volcanic  Origin  of  Natural 
Gas  and  Oil,  the  writer  has  endeavored  to  reprint  the  most 
essential  paragraphs  from  the  paper  written  by  Eugene  Coste, 
E.  M.,  and  published  by  the  Canadian  Mining  Institute. 
Vol.  vi,  pp.  73  to  123,  1903. 

"Science  has  long  ago  recorded  and  is  recording  every 
day  in  the  newly  developed  oil  and  gas  fields  many  facts 
which  in  mv  opinion  have  thrown  and  continue  to  throw 
the  clearest  light  on  the  origin  of  the  hydrocarbons, 
whether  they  be  petroleum,  natural  gas,  or  solid  hydro- 
carbons. 

(A).  As  everyone  knows  carbon  is  the  fundamental 
element  of  the  organic  world,  but  this  must  not  blind  us  to 
the  fact  that  carbon  is  also  a  very  important  element  of  the 
mineral  world.  Indeed  the  predominance  of  carbon  in  the 
organic  world  is  one  of  the  strongest  evidences  that  can 
possibly  be  adduced  to  demonstrate  its  great  importance, 
during  past  as  well  as  present  ages,  in  the  mineral  world 
(including  of  course  the  atmosphere)  for  vegetables  and 
animals  alike  had  evidently  no  other  source  to  draw  from. 
When  one  reflects  on  all  the  carbon  subtracted  from  the 
mineral  world  during  the  past  geological  ages  by  all  the 
representatives  of  the  organic  kingdom,  especially  since  the 
beginning  of  the  Carboniferous,  to  form  not  only  the  coal 
beds,  but  the  limestones,  he  must  admit  that  the  primitive 
atmosphere  was  very  rich  in  carbon. 

Therefore  large  quantities  of  this  element  must  have 
been  dissolved  in  the  first  fluid  of  magma  of  the  earth,  and 
large  quantities  of  it  must  still  exist  in  the  fluid  magma  of 
to-day  under  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

To  know^  and  demonstrate  in  just  what  form  the  carbon 
is  there,  and  how,  from  it,  hydrocarbons  were  produced  are 

6 


GENERAL 

not  essential  geological  points,  and  I  will  consider  it  quite 
sufficient  to  recall  that  chemists  of  high  standing  in  the 
scientific  world,  such  as  Berthelot  and  Mendeljeff,  have  long 
ago  (in  1866  and  1877  respectively)  suggested  very  probable 
forms  such  as  carbides  under  which  carbon  could  exist  in  the 
interior  fluid  magma,  and  probable  re-actions  under  which 
hydrocarbon  compounds  could  be  generated.  The  present 
great  daily  production  of  the  hydrocarbon  acetylene  by  the 
simple  action  of  water  on  carbide  of  calcium  is  very  sug- 
gestive in  that  respect,  and  these  considerations  together 
with  the  further  one,  now  proved  and  admitted,  that  eruptive 
magmas  are  hydato-pyrogenic,  namely,  contain  the  more  or 
less  notable  admixture  of  water  necessarv^  to  suggested 
possible  reactions  in  the  formation  of  hydrocarbons  are 
sufficient  in  that  respect.  The  vital  point  is  to  actually  show 
the  carbon  and  hydrocarbon  in  the  igneous  rocks,  lavas  and 
emanations  proceeding  from  these  internal  fluid  magmas. 
That,  geology  can  do  and  has  done,  in  a  great  many  in- 
stances, at  points  widely  distributed  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  globe ;  and,  we  will  now  pass  in  review  a  few^  of  these 
instances,  namely: 

1st.  In  the  Archaean  rocks  we  find  carbon  under  the 
form  of  graphite  in  gneisses,  in  pegmatite  dykes,  in  granites, 
gabbros  and  other  rocks,  the  igneous  origin  of  which  is 
undeniable. 

2nd.  In  the  crystals  of  igneous  gneisses  and  of  most 
granites  and  other  eruptive  rocks,  gaseous  and  liquid  in- 
clusions are  most  abundantly  found,  and  these  are  very 
often  constituted  by  carbonic  acid  and  hydrocarbons,  and 
also  often  contain  chloride  of  sodium  in  solution  or  in  minute 
crystals. 

3rd.  Petroleum,  or  semi-liquid  or  solid  bitumens  have 
often  been  noticed  and  cited  by  many  obserA^ers  as  occuring 
in  traps,  basalts  or  other  igneous  rocks. 


GENERAL 


4th.  Volcanic  rocks  forming  vertical  necks  and  pipes 
across  horizontal  strata  and  containing  carbon  in  the  pure 
form  of  diamonds  are  also  well  known  to  constitute  in  South 
Africa  the  deposits  of  these  precious  stones. 

5th.  I  now  come  to  the  hydrocarbons  and  carbonic 
acid  in  volcanic  manifestations  of  to-day.  Not  later  than  a 
few  months  ago  the  civilized  world  was  suddenly  startled 
and  horrified  at  the  report  that  an  explosion  of  Mount  Pelee 
had  wiped  away  in  a  few  minutes  the  entire  population  of 
the  City  of  St.  Pierre,  Martinique  Island.  From  the  accounts 
of  the  catastrophe  then  published,  it  is  quite  certain  that  a 
fearful  blast  or  tornado  of  gases  suddenly  shot  from  the  side 
of  the  volcano,  asphyxiating  and  burning  in  a  moment 
30,000  people.  Nothing  else,  I  submit,  but  gas  w^ould  carry 
death  so  suddenly  to  so  many  thousand  people,  inside  and 
outside  of  their  houses,  over  a  whole  city.  That  these  gases 
were  mostly  sulphur  gases  and  very  inflammable  gases 
(which  could  be  mainly  nothing  else  but  hydrocarbons)  has 
also  been  made  quite  clear  by  the  accounts  of  the  very  few 
survivors. 

We  mentioned  above  that  these  inflammable  gases  must 
have  been  mainly  hydrocarbons  (probably  mixed  with  hydro- 
gen and  sulphuretted  hydrogen),  and  we  draw  the  above 
inference  from  the  fact  that  inflammable  or  combustible 
gases  thus  constituted  have  often  been  noticed  and  observed 
before  in  connection  with  many  other  volcanic  eruptions  by 
scientists  of  great  repute,  w^ho  were  actually  able  to  collect 
and  analyse  these  gases.  For  instance,'  in  the  Vesuvian 
eruption  in  1855  and  1856,  it  was  observed  by  Charles 
Sainte  Claire  Deville  and  Leblanc  that  the  lava  as  it 
cooled  and  hardened  gave  out  successively  vapors  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  chlorides  and  sulphurous  acid,  then  steam,  and 
finally,  carbon  dioxide  and  coml3Ustible  gases. 

At  Torre  del  Greco,  on  the  sea  shore  opposite  Vesuvius, 
during  the  eruption  of  this  volcano  of  1861,  Mr.  Charles 

8 


GENERAL 


Saint  Claire  Deville  and  Mr.  Fouque  gathered  and 
studied  the  gases  from  the  eruptive  lava  which  was  then 
partly  flowing  under  the  sea.  The  combustible  gases  from 
it  were  collected  under  water  before  they  could  oxidize  with 
the  following  results,  namely: — 


From  Fissures 

OF  THE 

Lava  on  Land. 

From  Fissures  of  the  Lava 
Under  the  Sea. 

10  to  15 

metres 

from 

land. 

40  to  50 

metres 

from 

land. 

Ab't  100 

metres 

from 

land. 

Ab't  200 

metres 

from 

land. 

Dec.  23    Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Dec.  18 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Carbonic   acid. 

Hydrogen     and 
Proto-Carbon 

96.32      95.95 
3.68        4.05 

88.60 
11.40 

59.53 
40.47 

46.78 
53.22 

11.54 

88.46 

(Bj.  I  now  pass  to  my  second  paragrapli  in  which  I 
propose  to  show  that  all  the  petroleum,  natural  gas  and 
bituminous  fields  or  deposits  cannot  be  regarded  as  any- 
thing else  but  the  products  of  solfataric  volcanic  emanations 
condensed  and  held  in  their  passage  upward,  in  the  porous 
tanks  of  all  ages  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  from  the  Archaean 
rocks  to  the  Quaternary,  or  in  veins,  fissures  and  seams  in 
the  case  of  solid  bitumens.  Nothing  is  so  simple  and  there- 
fore nothing  so  natural  as  this  origin.  It  can  be  abundantly 
proven,  and  I  will  divide  the  data  and  proofs  I  propose  to 
adduce  for  this  under  the  following  heads: — • 

1st.     Direct  proofs  and  rock  pressure  of  natural  gas. 

2nd.  Complete  analogy  of  the  products  of  the  oil  and 
gas  fields  with  the  products  of  solfataric  volcanic  action. 

3rd.  Location  of  the  oil  and  natural  gas  fields  along 
faulted  and  fissured  zones,  each  one  presenting  a  few  par- 
ticularities of  its  own,  similarly  to  the  systems  of  volcanoes 
and  to  the  mountain  chains  of  the  trlobe. 


GENERAL 

4th.  The  oil,  natural  gas  and  bitumens  are  never 
indigenous  to  the  strata  or  formations  in  which  they  are 
found;  their  "sands"  or  other  deposits  are  nothing  more 
than  natural  rock  tanks  ranging  in  geology  from  the  Archaean 
to  the  Quaternary,  and  these  extraneous  products  must 
therefore  come  from  below  the  Archaean. 

5th.  Oil,  gas  and  bitumens  are  stored  products,  in 
great  abundance  in  certain  localities,  while  neighboring  lo- 
calities often  are  entirely  barren,  exactly  as  volcanic  pro- 
ducts would  be,  and  the  strata  among  which  they  are  found 
are  so  impervious  that  it  forces  one  to  the  conclusion  of  a 
source,  with  powerful  energy,  directly  below  their  fields. 

1st.  To  the  direct  proofs  given  above  of  solid,  liquid 
and  gaseous  hydrocarbons  in  lavas  or  other  igneous  rocks, 
or  in  emanations  clearly  volcanic,  can  be  added  direct 
proofs  of  volcanicity  from  a  few  of  the  oil  and  gas  fields, 
and  these  will  serve  as  a  link  as  it  were  between  the  vol- 
canoes, on  the  one  hand,  and  the  oil  and  gas  fields  where 
the  volcanic  origin  is  not  so  plainly  apparent,  on  the  other. 

In  the  newly  discovered  oil  fields  of  Texas  and  Louis- 
iana, and  also  in  the  California  fields,  we  have  many  no  less 
direct  evidences  of  volcanism,  though  they  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  understood  in  their  true  light.  These  are,  in 
Louisiana  and  Texas,  the  Salt  Islands  and  the  "Mounds" 
of  the  Coast  Prairie,  such  as  the  famous  Spindletop,  near 
Beaumont,  which  are  clearly  nothing  else  but  "suffionis"  or 
"salses,"  hardly  extinct  yet,  grouped  along  fractured  lines 
and  marking  in  that  region  the  dying  out  of  volcanicity, 
that  is  to  say,  the  dying  distant  echo  of  that  tremendous 
volcanic  energy  which,  a  little  further  south,  in  Mexico, 
Central  America  and  in  the  islands  and  along  the  south 
coast  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  is  to  this  day  so  powerfully 
active. 

Abundant  proofs  of  the  above  statement  are  to  be 
found  in  Professor  Robert  T.  Hill's  paper,  and  to  me  these 

10 


GENERAL 

proofs  are  so  conclusive  that  you  will  pardon  me  if  I  again 
quote  copiously: — 

"In  the  generally  monotonous  monoclinal  structure  (of 
the  Coast  Prairie  of  the  Gulf)  there  are  a  few  wrinkles  or 
small  swells  likely  to  escape  the  eye  of  even  the  trained 
observer,  and  yet  of  a  character  which  may  have  an  impor- 
tant bearing  on  the  oil  problem.  These  are  the  circular  and 
oval  mounds,  already  described,  which  were  first  recognized 
by  Capt.  Lucas.  When  he  pointed  out  vSpindletop  Hill  to 
me,  my  eyes  could  hardly  detect  it;  for  it  rises  by  a  gradual 
slope  only  ten  feet  above  the  surrounding  prairie  plains.  I 
was  still  more  incredulous  when  he  insisted  that  this  mound, 
only  200  acres  in  extent,  was  an  uplifted  dome.  But  Capt. 
Lucas  said  that  I  would  be  convinced  of  the  uplift  if  I  could  see 
Damon's  mound  in  Brazoria  County.  In  August,  1901,  I 
visited  that  place,  and  returned  for  a  second  look  at  Spindle- 
top,  and  was  convinced  that,  if  these  hills  are  not  recent 
quaquaversal  uplifts  no  other  known  hypothesis  will  explain 
them.  Damon's  mound  is  an  elliptical  hill,  a  mile  or  more 
in  greater  diameter,  rising  90  feet  above  the  surrounding 
level.  .  .  .  The  salt  islands  of  Louisiana  were  described 
by  Capt.  Lucas  in  the  transactions  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Mining  Engineers  before  his  discovery  of  oil  at  Beaumont. 
(1).  These  so-called  islands,  rising  from  80  to  250  feet  above 
the  surrounding  marshes  of  the  Coast  Prairie,  are  hills  be- 
neath layers  of  stratified  clay  and  sand.  They  belong  to  the 
same  group  of  topographic  phenomena  as  Spindletop  Hill 
at  Beaumont.  By  sinking  through  the  superstructure  of 
sand  and  clay  Capt.  Lucas  located  the  salt  bodies,  and 
determined  their  horizontal  extent,  developing  also  the  im- 
portant fact  that,  though  limited  in  diameter,  they  were  of 
great  depth,  that  of  Jefferson  Island  having  been  penetrated 
for  2,100  feet  without  reaching  bottom.  .  .  .  The 
bodies  of  salt  discovered  beneath  the  hills  of  the  Coast 
Prairie  are  of  remarkable  size,  thickness  and  purity,  notably 

11 


GENERAL 


those  of  Louisiana,  and  one  discovered  within  the  past  few 
months  at  Damon's  mound  which,  for  its  lower  700  feet,  is 
pure  rock  salt  with  occasional  traces  of  oil.  .  .  .  It  was 
Capt.  Lucas  who  discovered  the  relation  between  the  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  fumaroles,  gas  springs,  and  sulphur 
incrustations  at  the  surface  and  the  bodies  of  subterranean 
oil;  and  it  was  his  belief  in  this  association  that  led  him  to 
seek  for  oil  on  Spindletop  Hill.  .  .  .  The  oil  is  closely 
associated  with  the  mounds,  occurring  on  their  slopes  or 
summits.  ...  In  some  localities  hot  water  has  been 
struck  below  the  oil.  ...  In  the  original  Lucas  well, 
the  oil  itself  is  hot.  ...  It  had  a  temperature  of  over 
110°  fahr.  The  oil  seems  to  occur  not  in  any  definite  contin- 
uous stratum  but  in  spots  of  many  strata.  Gas  in  immense 
quantities  and  frequently  under  such  pressure  as  to  wreck 
the  wells,  has  been  struck  before  reaching  the  oil.  This  has 
occurred  several  times  at  Spindletop,  twice  at  Sour  Lake, 
and  once  at  Velasco,  where  the  destructive  effect  was  terriffic. 
Sulphur  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  occur  in  intimate 
association  with  the  Beaumont  oil.  In  fact,  the  oil  itself  is 
said  to  contain  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  and  the  fumes  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  are  strong  in  the  vicinity  of  the  wells. 
.  Underground  bodies  of  sulphur  associated  with  the 
oil  by  natural  processes  have  been  found  in  many  localities. 
The  Calcasieu  section  of  Hilgard  shows  at  540  feet  in  depth 
solid  sulphur  rock  similar  to  that  encountered  at  1,040  in 
the  Beaumont  well.  At  Damon's  mound  a  bed  of  sulphur 
from  10  to  40  feet  thick  was  encountered  above  the  salt. 
Crystals  of  free  sulphur  also  occur  in  the  cap  rock  overlaying 
the  vSpindletop  oil.  Capt.  Lucas  found  the  sub-strata  of  the 
south-eastern  part  of  Belle  Isle,  above  and  down  to  the  rock 
salt,  were  heavily  impregnated  with  petroleum.  Several 
calcareous  strata  containing  sulphur  were  also  encountered. 
The  wells  at  Damon's  mound  encountered  small 
flows  of  oil  at  depths  of  from  400  to  600  feet." 

12 


GENERAL 

In  his  last  report  on  petroleum  in  the  Mineral  Resources 
of  the  United  vStates,  Mr.  F.  H.  Oliphant  confirms  the  true 
nature  of  these  mounds,  as  here  indicated,  in  this  significant 
remark:  "The  depth  of  the  wells  to  the  productive  bed  vary 
from  880  feet,  about  the  centre  of  the  elevation  at  vSpindle- 
top,  to  1,190  feet  near  the  edge  of  the  productive  area, 
indicating  that  the  stratum  holding  the  petroleum  is  in  a 
general  way  conical,  which  condition  seems  to  be  verified  by 
the  deep  wells,  less  than  500  feet  from  defined  territory, 
failing  to  find  any  trace  of  the  open  cellular  carbonate  of 
lime  and  pure  sulphur  structure  encountered  on  the  mounds, 
at  depths  of  over  2,000  to  2,500  feet.  The  thickness  of  the 
oil-bearing  formation  is  placed  by  different  drillers  at  from 
20  to  75  feet.  It  is  almost  pure  carbonate  of  lime  with  more 
or  less  combined  sulphur  as  well  as  surrounding  crystals  of 
pure  sulphur." 

To  the  volcanic  solfataric  piiase  of  phenomena  these 
mounds,  or  rather  as  we  see,  real  vertical  chimneys,  must 
surely  belong.  How  else  could  be  explained  their  hot  oil, 
their  hot  water,  and  especially  their  v^ertical  chimney-like 
masses  of  sulphur,  salt,  limestone  and  dolomite  permeated 
and  impregnated  with  natural  gas,  oil,  and  hydrogen  sul- 
phuret  gas? 

If  we  now  transport  ourselves  from  Texas  to  the  Island 
of  Trinidad,  at  the  otiier  end  of  the  circle  of  oil  and  asphalt 
deposits,  which,  as  it  has  been  remarked,  border  tiie  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  vSea,  what  do  we  find  there? 
According  to  Clifford  Richardson  and  to  Edward  \V.  Parker, 
of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  "the  chief  source  of 
the  supply  (of  asphaltum)  is  a  lake  of  pitch  filling  the  crater 
of  an  extinct  volcano.  This  lake  lies  138  feet  above  the  sea 
level,  and  has  an  area  of  114  acres.  The  supply  is  being 
partially  renewed  by  a  constant  flow^  of  soft  pitch  into  the 
centre  of  the  lake  from  a  subterranean  source."  The  solfa- 
taric volcanic  emanations  at  Trinidad  are  also  abundantly 

13 


GENERAL 


attested  by  the  many  mineral  springs  on  that  Island,  by  the 
strong  thermal  waters  with  borates,  iodides  and  sulphur 
compounds  intimately  mixed  as  an  emulsion  with  the  bitu- 
men of  the  pitch  lake,  by  the  gas  issuing  from  the  cracks  in 
the  bitumen,  and  by  the  indurated  clays,  burnt  red  shales 
and  porcelanites  to  the  southward  of  the  lake. 

Similarly,  in  California,  through  all  the  extensive  oil 
fields  of  that  country  situated  along  the  coast  Range  which 
has  been  only  recently  uplifted,  the  solfataric  volcanic 
phenomena  are  most  abundant  to  this  day  in  connection 
with  the  oil  deposits  which  are  found  in  very  disturbed  and 
dislocated  strata  of  the  Cretaceous,  Tertiary  and  Quaternary. 
Here,  the  shales,  interstratified  with  the  bituminous  and  oil 
sands,  have  become  reddened  and  burnt  or  bleached  to 
white  shales,  and  changed  to  porcelanites  by  the  solfataric 
vapors,  and  they  have  also  been  greatly  calcified  and  salici- 
fied  by  the  hot  calcareous  and  silicious  waters.  Hot  natural 
gas  and  hot  sulphuretted  hydrogen  emanations,  as  well  as 
hot  and  boiling  waters,  issue  yet  from  the  hot  ground  in  a 
number  of  places  as  at  the  Calera  Rancho,  six  miles  west  of 
vSanta  Barbara,  where,  on  the  ocean  shore,  an  area  of  twenty 
acres  has  lately  subsided  some  25  feet,  and  from  the  hot 
ground  of  which  heavy  petroleum  oil  oozes  out  with  sul- 
phurous and  other  vapors  and  hot  sahne  waters.  Mr.  A.  S. 
Cooper,  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  in  a  paper  on  "The 
Genesis  of  Petroleum  and  Asphaltum,"  devotes  a  great  deal 
of  space  to  these  red  burnt  and  white  bleached  shales  as 
connected  with  the  genesis  of  bitumen  in  California,  but  he 
attributes  the  evidences  of  heat  and  heated  vapors  and  steam 
everywhere  shown  by  them  to  chemical  heat  engendered  in 
the  shales  themselves  in  some  mysterious  way,  or  generated 
in  some  even  more  mysterious  way  in  the  metamorphic  rocks 
below  the  Cretaceous. 

This  "chemical  heat,"  according  to  Mr.  Cooper,  distills 
the  carbonaceous  vegetable  matter  in  the  rocks  and  the 

14 


GENERAL 

resultant  gas,  oil  and  asphalt  migrate  upward  into  the  Cre- 
taceous, Tertiary  and  Quaternary  rocks  to  lill  there  the  gas 
and  oil  sands  and  to  form  the  asphalt  veins. 

But  why  this  "chemical  heat"  should  have  been  so 
accommodating  as  to  have  waited  until  the  Tertiary  and 
Quaternary  formations  were  deposited  before  metamor- 
phosing and  distilling  the  lower  formations  is  not  clearly 
explained. 

There  remains  now  one  more  direct  proof  of  volcanicity 
in  the  oil  and  gas  fields  to  which  I  desire  to  especially  draw 
your  attention.  This  proof  is  general  and  present  in  all  the 
oil  and  gas  fields,  and  therefore  of  primary-  importance  in  a 
consideration  of  the  origin  of  oil  and  gas;  I  refer  to  what 
has  been  called  the  rock  pressure  of  natural  gas.  This  great 
force,  which  often  has  thrown  out  of  a  well  high  above  the 
derrick  an  entire  string  of  tools  weighing  thousands  of  pounds 
and  which  often  gushes  the  oil  and  the  pebbles  of  the  oil 
sands  with  terrific  force  hundreds  of  feet  high  in  the  air 
cannot  be  explained  in  any  other  way  than  as  a  remnant  or 
spark  of  the  initial  volcanic  energy,  the  stupendous  force  of 
which  in  volcanoes  has  so  often  caused  most  tremendous 
explosions,  appalling  in  their  magnitude  and  effects,  blowing 
out  enormous  craters  and  sometimes  whirling  out  without 
warning,  as  from  the  mouth  of  a  mammoth  cannon,  a  de- 
structive tornado  of  inflammable  and  irrespirable  gases  over 
a  whole  city,  as  in  the  recent  memorable  instance  of  St. 
Pierre,  Martinique.  In  some  of  the  oil  and  gas  wells  this 
pressure  of  the  gas  has  registered  as  high  as  1,525  lb.  to  the 
square  inch,  or  over  100  ton  to  the  square  foot,  but  it  is 
generally  considerably  less  and  ranges  ordinarily  between 
200  lb.  and  1,000  lb.  in  fresh  fields  when  first  struck,  at 
depths  of  from  500  to  3,000  feet.  It  varies  greatly  in  the 
different  fields  from  wells  of  the  same  absolute  depth,  even 
though  the  two  fields  are  not  far  distant,  as  for  instance  in 
the  case  cited  by  the  late  Professor  Edward  Orton,  where  a 

15 


GENERAL 

well  in  Oswego  County,  New  York,  only  gave  a  pressure  of 
340  lb.  to  the  square  inch  from  a  depth  of  2,100  feet,  at 
which  the  gas  was  struck  in  the  Potsdam  sandstone,  while 
another  well  in  Onondaga  County,  N.  Y.,  the  "Munroe" 
well,  where  the  gas  was  struck  in  the  Trenton  limestone  at 
2,370  feet,  gave  a  pressure  of  1,525  lb.  to  the  square  inch. 
But,  and  this  is  a  very  significant  fact,  which  indicates 
plainly  the  internal  origin  from  below,  in  the  same  field  when 
gas  is  found  in  different  strata,  as  it  very  often  is,  the  strongest 
pressure  is  always  in  the  lower  stratum,  and  the  rate  of  de- 
crease of  that  pressure  from  the  lowest  stratum  to  the  upper 
ones  is  very  irregular,  evidently  depending  on  the  more  or 
less  open  channels  of  communication  between  these  strata 
which  existed  at  the  time  of  the  solfataric  volcanic  activity 
under  that  field,  channels  which  have  now  long  ago  been 
closed  up  as  a  rule.  The  other  significant  fact  of  the  rock 
pressure  of  natural  gas  is  that  it  is  a  continually  decreasing 
pressure  from  the  time  the  gas  is  first  used  in  a  new  field 
until  finally  it  is  all  exhausted.  This  shows,  without  a  doubt, 
that  there  is  nothing  now  behind  that  pressure,  no  hydro- 
static column  or  anything  else ;  the  gas  possesses  this  energy, 
per  se,  it  is  its  own  life,  and  it  imparts  it  to  the  water,  or  to 
the  oil  sharing  the  sands  with  itself  to  make  them  flow  vio- 
lently at  first,  but  before  long  this  decreasing  pressure  be- 
comes powerless  and  the  oil  has  to  be  pumped.  This  would 
not  be  the  case  if  a  constant  hydrostatic  head  was  behind  it ; 
therefore,  this  fact  alone  is  enough  to  condemn  absolutely 
Professor  Orton's  and  Professor  White's  theory  of  hydro- 
static or  artesian  water  pressure  as  an  explanation  of  the 
rock  pressure  of  natural  gas.  Paleozoic  oil  and  gas  rocks  of 
North  America  are  far  from  being  porous  enough  to  form 
permeable  sheets  arranged  in  basin  form  between  imper\4ous 
layers  and  with  porous  outcrops,  and  thus  never  fulfill  all  the 
conditions  necessary  to  constitute  artesian  basins.  These 
rocks,  ranging  in  geology  from  the  Potsdam  all  the  way  to 

16 


GENERAL 

the  Pittsburgh  sandstone,  just  above  the  Pittsburgh  coal, 
have  in  many  cases  furnished  oil  and  gas  sands  forming  in 
shale  series  irregular  bodies,  unconnected  and  without  out- 
crop. In  this  case,  how  can  any  one  seriously  adduce  an 
artesian  water  pressure  to  account  for  the  rock  pressure  of 
the  gas?  But,  even  in  the  case  of  the  Trenton  limestone, 
which  is  a  thick  continuous  stratum  with  long  outcrops  to 
the  north,  and  forming  a  basin  under  Ontario,  it  is  far  from 
being  pervious  enough  and  therefore  some  of  the  conditions 
for  an  artesian  basin  are  not  there,  as  absolutely  proven  by  a 
number  of  wells  which  were  drilled  right  through  the  whole 
series  down  to  the  Archaean  below,  and  never  found  any 
water.  Even  at  Collingwood,  where  the  Trenton  limestone 
outcrops  under  the  town  and  under  the  Georgian  Bay,  a 
number  of  wells,  drilled  there,  have  found  only  sulphurous 
and  saline  waters  in  small  quantities  below  130  feet;  and, 
three  wells  which  were  drilled  under  the  mountain,  fifteen 
miles  south  of  Collingwood,  pierced  the  whole  Trenton  lime- 
stone, from  1,160  to  1,750  feet,  without  finding  a  drop  of 
water  in  it,  though  the  top  of  the  Trenton  in  these  wells, 
situated  miles  one  from  the  other,  was  about  275  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  Georgian  Bay  in  each  instance.  Where  is 
Professor  Ort on' s  artesian  water  column  here?  Wanting  ab- 
solutely, right  where  it  should  be  on  the  track  between  Ohio 
and  the  outcrops  of  the  Trenton.  It  is  only  fair  to  add  here 
that  Professor  Orton  himself,  in  his  presidential  address  read 
before  the  Geological  Society  of  America,  December  28th, 
1897,  abandoned  as  untenable  his  theory  of  artesian  water 
pressure  as  the  source  of  the  natural  gas  rock  pressure.  Yet, 
there  is  surely  a  cause  for  these  great  pressures  going  up 
sometimes  as  high  as  100  atmospheres,  recorded  by  natural 
gas.  If  it  is  not  a  volcanic  energy,  what  is  it?  Svante 
Arhenius,  the  distinguished  Swedish  physicist,  has  figured 
out  that  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  solid  down  to  about  twenty- 
five  miles,  and  that  at  this  depth,  where  the  temperature 


GENERAL 

must  be  1200°  C.  and  the  pressure  about  10,840  atmospheres, 
commences  the  fluid  magma;  also  that,  at  the  depth  of 
about  186  miles,  the  temperature  must  without  doubt  ex- 
ceed the  critical  temperature  of  all  known  substances,  when 
therefore  the  hquid  magma  must  pass  to  a  gaseous  magma 
subject  to  extremely  high  pressures.  Here  then,  only  twenty- 
five  miles,  at  most,  below  the  gas  fields,  is  an  adequate 
source  for  the  natural  gas  pressures,  and  this  is  the  only 
adequate  source  we  can  possibly  find.  We  also  know  that 
light  hydrocarbon  or  natural  gas  is  emanated  abundantly 
in  all  the  volcanic  regions  from  these  interior  masses.  We 
therefore  have  there,  below  the  crust  and  there  alone,  the 
source  of  both  the  natural  gas  and  of  its  strong  energy  and 
life,  called  rock  pressure. 

2nd.  Complete  analogy  of  the  products  of  the  oil  and 
gas  fields  with  the  products  of  the  solfataric  volcanic  action. 

It  is  well  known,  and  our  brief  review  in  the  first  para- 
graph of  this  paper  shows,  that  the  great  solfataric  volcanic 
products  are  water,  chloride  salts,  sulphur,  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  carbonic  acid  and  hydrocarbons  with  often  an 
admixture  of  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  That  all  oil 
and  gas  fields  in  every  part  of  the  world  present  the  above 
products  in  a  remarkably  constant  association,  though  of 
course,  occasionally  a  few  of  them  may  be  missing,  is  a  fact 
so  well  known  that  it  is  unnecessary  for  us  to  do  more  than 
refer  to  it  briefly.  We  have  already  seen,  that  in  the  case  of 
the  Texas  and  Louisiana  fields  this  association,  mainly,  of 
salt,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  sulphur,  and  hydrocarbons  is 
most  pronounced.  So  it  is  clearly  in  the  Lima  oil  fields, 
including  the  Canadian  fields,  and  in  the  Cahfornia  fields. 

But,  even  in  the  Appalachian  fields  of  New  York, 
Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia,  where  the  oil  is  free  from 
sulphur  and  the  gas  is  generally  free  from  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  yet  it  is  not  always  so  and  sulphur  waters  are 
very  often  found  in  the  wells  of  that  region  almost  as  generally 

18 


GENERAL 


as  salt  waters  and  constantly  associated  with  the  oil  and  gas. 
The  occasional  presence  of  sulphur  in  the  oil  and  gas  at  a  few 
places  along  the  Appalachian  belt,  especially  in  New  York 
State,  where  it  is  found  in  lower  formations,  confirms  Dr. 
David  T.  Day's  suggestion  that,  if  as  a  rule  the  Pennsylvania 
oil  and  the  Lima  oil  differ  in  their  sulphur  contents  and 
color,  it  is  probably  due  to  a  filtering  process  which  the 
Pennsylvania  oil  has  been  able  to  undergo  in  its  passage 
upward  through  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  fine-grained 
shales  and  sandstones. 

3rd.  Location  of  the  oil — and  gas — fields,  and  of  the 
solid  bitumens  along  faulted  fissured  zones,  similarly  to  the 
system  of  volcanoes,  and  to  the  mountain  chains  of  the  globe. 

Few  geologists  are  to  be  found  to-day  who  do  not  admit 
at  least  a  liquid  sub-stratum  under  a  solid  crust  for  the 
constitution  of  our  planet,  be  the  centre  of  it  gaseous,  liquid 
or  solid;  and  who  do  not  also  recognize  the  cooling  and 
shrinking  of  this  interior  fluid  mass  as  the  grand  cause  of 
volcanicity  including  not  only  all  the  direct  volcanic  phe- 
nomena but  also  all  the  dislocations,  movements,  faulting 
and  Assuring  of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  except  possibly  some 
local  and  minor  displacements.  The  mountain  chains, 
therefore,  and  the  volcanoes  stand  out  as  the  chief  results 
of  one  profound  cause  in  which  the  entire  central  mass  of 
the  whole  sphere  is  in  operation.  It  is  only  natural  then  to 
find  the  mountain  chains  and  volcanoes  of  the  earth  in  such 
long  straight  lines  marking  the  much  faulted  and  fractured 
grand  circle  zones  of  least  resistance  of  that  sphere.  But, 
in  the  resulting  effects,  on  the  earth's  crust,  of  the  pressures 
causing  these  great  orogenic  and  volcanic  dislocations,  we 
must  expect  to  find  all  degrees  of  intensity  from  the  immense 
parallel  folding,  fracturing  and  faulting,  so  grandly  illus- 
trated in  so  many  of  the  great  systems  of  mountain  chains,  to 
numerous  zones  much  less  dislocated  and  fractured,  gener- 
ally parallel  to  the  neighboring  mountain  range  or  to  some 

19 


GENERAL 


main  offshoot  of  it,  and  in  some  cases  possibly  hundreds  of 
miles  away  from  it,  and  marking  the  progressively  dying  out 
efforts  and  effects  of  that  particular  great  orogenic  revolu- 
tion from  the  mountain  chain  outward.  These  minor 
fissured  and  fractured  zones  may  be  of  such  slight  disturb- 
ances and  fracturing  that  this  fact  may  hardly  appear, 
especially  when  the  surfac'e  is  largely  drift  covered.  Yet, 
the  pent-up  gases  and  vapors  of  the  interior  may  during  the 
active  period  or  periods  of  these  disturbances  have  succeeded 
in  forcing  their  way  up  along  these  zones  to  or  near  the  sur- 
face. Even  in  North  America,  where  so  much  deep  drilling 
for  oil  and  gas  has  so  long  ago  taken  place,  several  of  these 
disturbed  and  fractured  zones  have  only  been  indicated  in 
the  last  few  years  in  the  drilling  operations  connected  with 
new  discoveries  of  oil  and  gas.  Such  was  the  case  in  the 
North  Western  Ohio  gas  and  oil  fields  as  shown  by  the  late 
Professor  Edward  Orton  in  these  words:  "Up  to  a  recent 
date  it  was  not  known  that  the  underlying  rocks  failed  to 
share  the  monotony  of  the  surface,  but  the  explorations  of 
the  last  two  years  have  revealed  the  surprising  fact  that  the 
rocky  floor  of  the  Black  Swamp  of  old  time  is  characterized 
by  far  greater  irregularity  of  structure  and  by  far  greater 
suddenness  and  steepness  of  dip  than  the  strata  of  any  other 
portion  of  Ohio.  The  entire  floor  of  North  Western  Ohio, 
including  the  lake  counties,  as  far  east  as  Lorain  County,  is 
seen  to  lie  in  a  disturbed  and  uneasy  condition. 
The  Findlay  break  is  abrupt  and  well  marked,  and  is  indeed 
the  most  remarkable  fact  in  the  structural  geology  of  North- 
em  Ohio.  The  occurrence  of  petroleum  and  gas,  but  es- 
specially  of  the  latter,  in  North  Western  Ohio  has  been 
found  to  be  associated  with  greater  irregularities  of  structure 
than  are  known  elsewhere  in  the  State,  except  in  a  single 
locality.  It  is  in  Findlay  that  the  most  marked  disturbance 
occurs,  and  the  great  supplies  of  gas  that  are  found  there 
appear  to  be  closely  connected  with  this  disturbance." 

20 


GENERAL 

Mr.  Robt.  T.  Hill  in  his  paper  on  the  Beaumont  oil 
fields,  previously  referred  to,  says!  "There  is  some  evidence 
that  the  Coast  Prairie  overlap  conceals  a  line  of  serious 
deformation,  which  may  be  a  sharp  fold,  with  an  increased 
dip  coastward,  or  a  zone  of  faulting."  Concerning  this  same 
region,  Mr.  E.  T.  Dumble  says:  "While  the  Coastal  Plain 
is  now  just  what  its  name  implies,  during  Tertiary  times,  it 
was  subjected  to  oscillations,  accompanied  by  certain  phe- 
nomena which  marked  the  dying  out  of  vulcanism  in  this 
region." 

In  the  theory,  which  he  formulates  to  explain  "the  oil 
phenomena"  of  the  Texas  mounds,  Mr.  Hill  suggests  that 
artesian  saline  waters  bring  up  the  sulphur  and  oil  along 
this  indicated  line  of  faulting  in  that  region;  I  simply  go  a 
little  further  and  claim  that  this  line  of  faulting  gave  access 
to  volcanic  emanations  bringing  the  water,  salt,  sulphur,  oil 
and  gas  from  the  interior  in  the  state  of  vapors  and  gases, 
which  condensed  more  or  less  near  the  surface,  some  escaping 
yet  in  their  gaseous  state  as  the  hydrogen  sulphuret  and  the 
natural  gas. 

In  the  famous  Appalachian  oil  and  gas  belt  bordering 
and  following  the  Appalachian  Mountains  from  the  eastern 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario  to  Alabama,  for  the  distance  of  900 
miles,  the  evidences  of  parallel  folding,  faulting  and  frac- 
turing are  most  numerous,  as  shown  in  tiic  reports  and  maps 
of  the  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  West  Virginia  Surveys,  and 
if  so  many  anticlines,  slopes,  synclines  and  terraces  have 
proven  to  be  good  oil  and  gas  fields  all  through  this  vast 
extent  of  country,  and  from  rocks  ranging  from  the  Potsdam 
sandstone  to  the  Upper  Productive  Coal  Pleasures,  it  is 
certainly  not  because  these  hydrocarbons  have  moved  side- 
ways to  the  anticlines  (as  we  will  see  below  they  cannot  do 
on  account  of  the  imperviousness  of  the  strata)  but  because 
this  region  being,  at  certain  geological  periods,  a  dislocated 
and   fractured   zone,    the   hvdrocarbons   have   then   moved 


GENERAL 


upward  from  below  through  these  faults  and  fissures.  This 
is  plainly  evidenced  by  the  solid  vertical  core  of  hydrocarbon 
at  the  Ritchie  Mine,  Ritchie  County,  West  Virginia,  where 
a  straight  vertical  fissure,  4  feet  wide  in  the  sandstone,  but 
much  smaher  and  more  irregular  in  the  shales,  is  completely 
filled  with  a  mineral  pitch  or  inspissated  petroleum,  called 
Grahamite  by  Wurtz,  and  first  described  by  Professor  Leslie 
in  18^63,  and  lately  fully  reported  on  by  George  H.  Eldridge, 
of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  who  seems  to  admit, 
with  Professor  White,  of  the  West  Virginia  Geological  Sur- 
vey, that  the  source  of  the  Grahamite  is  the  oil  in  the  Cairo 
sand  1,300  feet  down,  but,  that  does  not  explain  the  source 
of  the  oil  in  the  Cairo  sand  which,  we  will  see,  can  be  traced 
to  below  the  Archaean.  Therefore,  the  Ritchie  Mine  Gra- 
hamite vein,  though  only  badly  defined  when  traversing  the 
shales,  must,  nevertheless,  have  extended  at  one  time  to 
below  the  Archaean. 

4th.  That  gas,  oil  and  bitumen  are  never  indigenous 
to  the  strata  in  which  they  are  found  and  are  clearly  second- 
ary products  is  abundantly  proven  by  the  study  of  the 
different  petroleum  districts  all  over  the  world  where  the 
deposits  are  seen  to  form  most  irregular  patches,  pools  and 
fields  of  porous  rocks  of  all  ages  impregnated  with  the 
petroleums.  Any  porous  reservoir  of  the  entire  sequence  of 
the  sedimentary  formations,  from  the  Quaternary  down  to 
the  crystalline  rocks  may  be  filled  with  the  petroleums  and 
even  fissures  in  the  crystalline  rocks  below  all  the  sediments 
(near  Newhall,  Los  Angeles  County,  California,)  are  thus 
found  filled  with  a  very  light  oil,  almost  naphtha.  In  many 
of  the  fields  the  oil  and  gas  are  obtained  in  a  number  of 
different  sands  or  reservoirs  some  of  which  are  hundreds 
and  thousands  of  feet  lower  than  the  upper  one  and  in 
neighboring  wells  the  oil  and  gas  are  often  tapped  at  entire- 
ly different  depths.  All  of  which  plainly  demonstrate  that 
the  source  of  the  petroleums  is  below  the  crystaUine  rocks. 

22 


GENERAL 

5th.  Another  and  last  proof  which  I  want  to  adduce 
is  that  the  petroleum  and  natural  gas  deposits  are  such 
locally  separated  and  accidental  accumulations,  often  in  such 
very  large  quantities,  that  their  source  must  be  from  the 
deep-seated  volcanic  reservoir  directly  beneath,  which, 
alone,  is  abundant  enough  and  was  powerful  enough  to 
force  such  large  quantities  of  hydrocarbons  through  most 
impervious  strata  during  periods  of  volcanic  activity  under 
these  fields. 

In  discussing  the  origin  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas, 
the  mistake  has  often  been  made  to  suppose  and  admit  that 
certain  "horizons,"  especially  of  shales,  are  entirely  "bitu- 
minous" over  very  large  areas  and  are  to  be  found  spreading 
out  uninterrupted,  like  coal  beds  for  instance,  over  wide 
regions.  In  fact,  in  most  of  the  papers  w^hich  I  have  read 
discussing  this  subject,  some  more  or  less  extensive  bitu- 
minous shale  horizon,  sometimes  situated  above  strangely 
enough,  is  ahvays  pointed  at  as  the  source  of  the  oil;  but, 
that,  of  course,  as  I  have  already  remarked,  does  not  solve 
the  question  of  origin — it  only  defers  it  and  shirks  it  as  it 
were.  But  furthermore,  I  submit,  that  the  evidence  to  be 
gathered  in  all  the  oil  and  gas  fields  show  how  localized  and 
accidental  the  deposits  of  these  products  are  and  that  in  no 
case  do  they  form  widely  and  uniformly  spread  "sheets." 
Carbonaceous  shales  sometimes  form  such  "sheets"  but  not 
bituminous  shales.  Hunt  has  long  ago  denied  that  the  so- 
called  bituminous  shales  "except  in  rare  instances  contain 
any  petroleum  or  other  form  of  bitumens."  These  two 
words  "carbonaceous"  and  "bituminous"  are  very  far  from 
being  synonymous,  and  this  fact  has  too  often  been  lost 
sight  of.  But  even  when  shales  are  really  bituminous  (that 
is  contain  hydrocarbons)  they  contain  these  only  in  spots, 
as  w^ell  illustrated  in  the  oil-shale  fields  of  Scotland,  where, 
in  the  different  quarries,  different  beds  of  shales  occupving 
a  series  under  the  coal  3,000  feet  thick,  are  worked,  the  same 

23 


GENERAL 

bed  not  being  found  rich  or  "impregnated  with  oil"  in  more 
than  one  locahty  or  two. 

We  have  seen  above  how  well  the  mounds  and  salt 
islands  of  Texas  and  Louisiana  illustrate  this  localization  of 
oil  and  gas  deposits  in  a  few  small  spots,  here  and  there,  with 
extensive  barren  stretches  of  the  same  formations  between; 
and  that  the  abundance  of  the  oil  obtained  from  under  little 
Spindletop  at  Beaumont  is  so  remarkable  that  it  entirely 
precludes  the  admission  of  an  indigenous  source  from  the 
sedimentary  strata  under  or  near  this  mound. 

All  other  fields  show  the  same  spotted  and  local  feature 
of  impregnation  in  their  petroleum  deposits.  Even  in  North 
Western  Ohio  and  Indiana  where  the  oil  and  gas  stratum  is 
a  limestone  and  where,  therefore,  solfataric  waters  could 
partially  dissolve  and  dolomitize  this  limestone,  thus  ren- 
dering it  more  porous  and  spreading  the  subsequent  oil  and 
gas  deposits  more  than  usual,  yet  even  there  the  300  million 
barrels  of  oil  and  the  enormous  quantities  of  gas,  which  have 
been  obtained  in  the  last  18  years,  have  been  produced  from 
verv^  limited  areas  in  these  vStates,  though  in  many  other 
counties  of  these  and  adjoining  States  the  same  fossiliferous 
stratum,  viz.,  the  Trenton  limestone,  has  proven  barren  of 
hydrocarbons  notwithstanding  that  the  organic  source  (if 
such  there  was)  would  be  available  there  just  the  same  as 
in  the  neighboring  oil  fields,  as  well  as  many  anticlinal  domes 
and  other  varieties  of  flat  structure  which  have  been  regarded 
as  necessarv'-  and  sufficient  to  the  accumulations  of  oil  and 
gas  travelling  through  from  fossil  sources. 

The  Berea  grit  in  Ohio  affords  another  most  striking 
example  of  the  localization  of  oil  and  gas  pools.  Notwith- 
standing that  it  imderlies  most  uniformly  50  counties  of 
Ohio  and  20,000  square  miles  and  that  it  overlies  the  greatest 
shale  formation  of  the  entire  State,  viz.,  the  Ohio  shales, 
ranging  in  thickness  from  300  to  2,000  feet,  and  that  it  is 
covered  by  some  400  feet  of  imper^'ious  shales,   viz.,   the 

24 


GENERAL 

Berea  and  Cuyahoga  shales,  yet  it  is  only  productive  of  oil 
and  gas  at  a  few  points.  How  is  it  that  since,  as  Professor 
Orton  said,  "There  is  everywhere  underlying  the  Berea  grit 
an  abundant  source  of  oil"  (the  shales)  and  that,  since  the 
impervious  cover  is  mostly  always  there  over  this  vast 
territory  protecting  a  good  continuous,  often  porous,  sand- 
stone reservoir,  that  in  point  of  fact,  as  Professor  Orton  also 
said:  "There  are  but  very  few  localities  in  these  20,000 
square  miles  where  any  notew^orthy  value  has  thus  far  been 
obtained  from  the  formation  in  the  line  of  these  coveted 
supplies,  and  but  a  single  field  of  large  production"?  A  few 
more  fields  have  been  found  in  the  Berea  grit  since  the  above 
was  written,  such  as  Corning,  Scio  and  others,  but  yet,  after 
very  considerable  drilling,  not  one  per  cent,  of  the  20,000 
square  miles  has  been  found  productive;  and,  where  it  has 
been,  as  remarked  also  by  Orton  in  the  same  report,  an 
"abnormal  structure  or  dislocation  of  the  strata"  was  noticed, 
like  at  IMacksburg.  This  indicates  the  fracturing  of  the  strata 
necessary  for  the  local  impregnation  of  the  Berea  grit  and 
other  "sands"  with  oil  and  gas. 

But  where  the  localization  of  oil  is  most  striking  is  in 
the  famous  oil  field  of  the  volcanic  peninsula  of  Apscheron, 
near  Bakou,  Russia,  where  from  a  small  area  of  not  over 
eight  square  miles  a  production  of  oil  of  over  900  million 
barrels  has  now  been  obtained. 

The  very  local  and  accidental  distribution  of  the  oil  and 
gas  fields  is  very  unlike  what  would  be  expected  from  de- 
posits of  organic  origin,  which  like  the  coal  beds  would 
naturally  spread  out  uninterrupted  over  wide  regions.  On 
the  other  hand,  volcanic  products  are  "a  priori"  found 
locahzed  along  the  lines  of  volcanic  activity  and  tiiere  in 
large  quantities,  while  the  neighboring  localities  or  districts 
not  subjected  to  this  volcanic  action  are  barren.  If  we  now 
recall  the  well  known  geological  fact  that  volcanic  activity 
is,  and  has  been  during  all  geological  ages,  shifting  and  in- 

25 


GENERAL 


termittent  along  the  fractured  zones  of  the  earth  crust,  that 
is  to  say  that,  while  it  manifested  itself  intermittently  in  a 
certain  region  during  a  certain  period,  in  subsequent  ages  it 
died  out  and  became  entirely  quiescent  in  that  particular 
region  to  break  out  anew  in  other  portions  of  the  earth,  then 
we  will  realize  that  natural  gas  and  oil,  though  volcanic  pro- 
ducts, are  to-day  in  most  every  field  where  they  are  found, 
stored  products  not  now  renewing  themselves  in  the  recesses 
of  the  earth.  We  will  also  thus  understand  why  the  rock 
pressure  and  quantity  gradually  decrease  as  we  take  these 
products  out  of  their  deposits,  the  volcanic  activity  which 
brought  them  there,  through  faults  and  fissures,  was  active, 
as  it  always  is,  only  for  a  time,  and  now  that  this  activity 
has  expired  these  faults  and  fissures  have  closed  up  and  the 
volcanic  force  is  unable  to  refill  the  reservoirs,  just  as  it  is 
in  most  mining  regions  of  the  earth  where  a  similar  volcanic 
energy  was,  at  one  time,  the  immediate  cause  of  the  filling 
of  fissures,  veins  and  lodes  now  long  ago  solidified  with 
quartz  and  other  vein-stones  more  or  less  mineralized. 

(C).  Complete  inadequacy  of  all  organic  theories  of 
origin. 

I  have  shown  that  volcanic  emanations  of  hydrocarbons 
are  a  natural  geological  process  of  to-day,  abundantly  veri- 
fied and  witnessed  in  actual  operation  in  volcanic  eruptions 
and  phenomena  all  over  the  world. 

Can  as  much  be  said  of  any  of  the  organic  theories 
generally  advanced  to  explain  the  origin'  of  the  hydrocar- 
bons? Evidently  not!  None  of  the  processes  called  on  by 
these  organic  theories  are  to  be  witnessed  in  operation  any- 
where in  nature  to-day.  The  late  Professor  Edward  Orton, 
a  profound  believer  in  and  a  strong  defender  of  the  organic 
origin  of  petroleum,  acknowledged  this  point  plainly  when 
he  said  in  his  presidential  address  before  the  Geological 
Society  of  America:  "It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  bituminous 
series  may  result  from  the  destructive  distillation  of  either 

26 


GENERAL 


vegetable  or  animal  substances  enclosed  in  the  rocks,  and 
where v^er  conditions  can  be  shown  that  provide  for  such 
distillation  we  are  not  obliged  to  go  further  in  our  search. 
Destructive  distillation  can  take  effect  in  organic  matter 
that  has  attained  a  permanent  or  stable  condition  in  the 
rocks,  like  the  carbonaceous  matter  of  black  shales  or  coal; 
but  it  seems  improbable  on  many  and  obvious  grounds  that 
this  can  be  the  normal  and  orderly  process  of  petroleum 
production.  This  production  of  petroleum  must  be  in  active 
operation  in  the  world  to-day;  at  least  it  seems  highly  im- 
probable that  a  process  coeval  with  the  kingdoms  of  life, 
growing  with  their  growth  and  strengthening  with  their 
strength,  a  process  that  was  certainly  in  its  highest  activity 
throughout  Tertiary  time,  leaving  a  most  important  record 
in  the  rocks  of  that  age,  should  suddenly  and  completely 
disappear  from  the  scene  upon  which  it  had  wrought  so  long 
and  upon  which  all  other  conditions  appear  to  be  substan- 
tially unchanged."  We  have  seen  above  how  far  from 
hav4ng  disappeared  from  the  scene  is  the  volcanic  process  of 
petroleum  production,  but  Professor  Orton  was  only  looking 
to  find  in  nature  a  petroleum  production  process  "coeval 
with  the  kingdoms  of  life,"  and  that  he  could  not  find  it  simplv 
because  it  does  not  and  never  did  exist.  To  me  this  is  most 
clearly  proven  by  the  simple  consideration  of  the  natural 
geological  processes  of  decomposition  of  organic  remains  and 
of  the  conditions  pertaining  in  the  oil  and  gas  fields. 

First.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  decomposition  of 
animal  bodies,  as  taking  place  in  nature  to-day,  and  we  mav, 
no  doubt,  say  during  all  ages,  is  so  rapid  that  the  decay  or 
combustion  is  complete  before  the  entombment  in  the  sedi- 
mentary rocks  of  these  animal  bodies,  preserved  in  anv  wav, 
can  possibly  take  place.  This  is  no  doubt  why  instances 
are  so  rarely  cited  in  geology  of  partially  decomposed  and 
preserved  remains  of  animal  bodies  being  found;  only  most 
exceptional  cases,  such  as  a  few  remains  preser\'ed  in  the 

27 


GENERAL 


antiseptic  waters  of  peat  bogs  or  a  few  frozen  remains  of 
Elephas,  are  given;  but  these  exceptions  only  confirm  the 
rule  which  is,  viz.,  when  there  is  anything  left  at  all  it  is  the 
shell  or  bones  or  their  moulds  or  casts  and  no  trace  of  the 
body  is  to  be  found.  The  fact  that  a  few  shells  are  some- 
times found  full  of  petroleum  is  a  conclusive  proof  that  this 
oil  is  a  subsequent  infiltration  into  the  shell,  as  in  the  case 
of  silt,  silica,  pyrites,  calcite  and  many  other  minerals  filling 
shells,  a  modicum  of  oil  is  all  each  shell  would  contain  if  the 
petroleum  originated  from  the  body,  and  invariably,  when 
petroleum  is  found  in  fossil  shells,  it  is  also  found  in  the 
porous  or  seamed  strata  in  which  the  shells  are  embedded, 
showing  the  infiltration  and  impregnation  from  without. 

Second.  It  is  also  equally  certain  that  there  is  only  but 
one  normal  process  of  decomposition  and  preservation  of 
vegetable  organic  matter  in  nature  to-day  and  in  ages  past, 
and  that  is  the  decomposition  of  it  into  carbonaceous  matter, 
viz.,  peat,  lignite  and  coal.  This  process  is  in  active  operation 
in  the  world  to-day,  as  it  has  always  been,  and  it  is  the  only 
normal  process  "coeval  with  the  kingdoms  of  life"  that 
geolog}^  teaches  us.  Not  one  single  authentic  instance  can 
be  adduced,  from  the  actual  normal  processes  of  nature,  of 
any  decomposition  of  organic  matter  "primarily"  into 
petroleum.  How  could  it  be?  The  same  conditions  of  low 
temperatures  and  of  all  other  factors  entering  in  the  normal 
decomposition  of  vegetable  remains  must  give  only  the  one 
result  and  cannot  possibly  give  two  different  ones,  especially 
in  the  same  strata  and  at  the  same  places,  for  oil  sands  and 
coal  beds  are  often  contiguous.  If  then  we  do  not  find 
carbonaceous  matter  in  any  quantity  below  the  carboni- 
ferous period,  as  the  A  B  C  of  geology  teaches  us  that  we  do 
not,  the  simple  reason  of  it  is,  as  long  ago  admitted  by 
geologists,  that,  before  that  period,  the  favorable  conditions 
for  vegetable  growth  had  not  yet  developed  to  any  extent, 
and  not  that  it  was  transformed  into  petroleum,  as  attested 

28 


GENERAL 


by  the  small  quantity  of  carbonaceous  matter  found  in  the 
Devonian  and  vSilurian  strata,  which  are  witness  and  proof 
that  the  one  normal  process  of  decomposition  of  vegetable 
matter  into  coal  was  then  already  going  on. 

Then,  since  animal  organisms  were  never  entombed  in 
the  rocks,  and  since  vegetable  life  was  quite  insufficient 
before  the  Carboniferous  Age,  how  can  the  organic  theories 
of  origin  be  adduced  to  explain  all  the  oil  and  gas  found 
below  the  Carboniferous,  and  that  means  all  the  enormous 
quantities  of  oil  and  gas  of  the  Lower  Silurian  limestone  of 
Ohio  and  Indiana,  and  it  also  means  almost  all  of  the  very 
large  quantities  of  oil  and  gas  developed  in  the  last  40  years 
along  the  Appalachian  belt  which  has  been  found  under  the 
coal  in  the  lower  and  Sub-Carboniferous  and  in  the  Devonian 
and  Silurian;  and,  much  more  in  other  fields.  The  fact  often 
cited  by  the  numerous  exponents  of  the  organic  theories,  as 
in  the  above  quotation  of  the  late  Professor  Edvvard  Orton, 
that,  by  destructive  distillation,  petroleum  and  gas  can  be 
obtained  from  coal  or  carbonaceous  matter,  and  also  from 
fish  oil,  lard  oil  or  linseed  oil,  etc.,  will  not  serve  here  at  all, 
for  not  only  there  was  too  little  to  distill  in  the  rocks  prior  to 
the  Carboniferous,  but,  what  little  there  was,  was  not  dis- 
tilled and  is  to  be  found  there  to-day,  undistilled,  as  the 
Paleozoic  oil  rocks  of  the  oil  regions  of  North  America  have, 
without  the  shadow  of  a  doubt,  remained  unafTected  by 
metamorphic  agencies,  and  have  never  been  subjected  to  the 
heat  necessary  to  effect  this  distillation  of  organic  matter. 
Nor  have  the  rocks  of  the  Texas  section,  and  yet  we  have 
seen  that  petroleum,  gas  and  asphalt  are  found  in  them  from 
the  Ordovician  to  the  Quaternary.  This  destructive  dis- 
tillation of  carbonaceous  matter  (and,  we  repeat,  there  is 
no  other  organic  matter  entombed  in  the  sedimentary'  rocks 
but  carbonaceous  matter)  could  not  possibly  take  place  with- 
out leaving  a  residue  of  coke  and  of  ash,  and  not  only  these 
residues  have  never  been  found  under  the  oil  and  gas  fields, 

29 


GENERAL 

but  we  know  for  certain  that  they  do  not  exist. 

In  fact,  if  this  distillation  had  taken  place,  there  would 
be  no  coal  fields  anywhere  as  they  would  all  have  been 
changed  into  coke-beds. 

We  see,  therefore,  to  what  absurd  deductions  we  are  led 
by  the  organic  theories  of  the  origin  of  petroleum,  viz.,  1st, 
Abundance  of  vegetable  life  before  the  Carboniferous;  2nd, 
No  coal  am^vhere  on  the  globe." 

Early  Geological  History  of  Western  New  York  and 
Ontario  (Frank  Westcott. ) — "At  one  period  during  the  earth's 
transformation,  following  the  recession  of  the  original  Gulf 
of  Mexico  in  a  southwesterly  direction  from  New  York  and 
Ontario,  what  is  now  Lake  Ontario  and  Lake  Erie  was  one 
large  body  of  water,  with  the  St.  Lawrence  as  an  outlet 
and  no  Niagara  Falls.  This  geographical  condition  was 
caused  by  the  slowly  receding  gulf. 

The  Susquehanna  River,  which  runs  south  through 
Pennsylvania,  ran  north  through  Seneca  Lake — if  Seneca 
Lake  existed  at  that  time — and  emptied  into  what  is  now 
Lake  Ontario. 

Partial  proof  of  this  is  that  about  ten  miles  north  of 
Geneva,  New  York,  the  drill  penetrated  three  hundred  feet 
of  soil  before  striking  rock,  showing  the  bottom  of  an  extinct 
stream. 

The  Niagara  river  was  forty  miles  wide,  as  is  shown  at 
the  present  time  by  the  hills  back  from  the  river  on  both 
sides.  As  the  water  receded  through  the  St.  Lawrence  Valle\^ 
Niagara  Falls  was  formed  and  the  larger  share  of  the  water 
of  Lake  Erie  drawn  off.  Lake  Erie,  as  is  well  known,  is  a 
very  shallow  lake.  Niagara  Falls  has  been  cutting  back 
toward  Lake  Erie  at  the  rate  of  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet 
per  year  ever  since  its  formation.  The  time  will  come  when 
there  will  be  no  Lake  Erie,  but  a  river  where  Lake  Erie  now  is. 

30 


GENERAL 

All  the  lakes  in  the  vState  of  New  York  with  one  exception 
are  glacial  lakes,  and  run  north  and  south,  being  extremely 
deep  at  their  southern  extremity.  Oneida  Lake,  the  only 
exception,  is  a  very  shallow  lake,  twenty-two  miles  long  and 
five  miles  wide.  It  was  caused  by  the  squeezing  up  of  the 
Adirondack  Mountains,  which  were  not  of  volcanic  origin. 
Oneida  Lake  lies  in  a  synclinal  and  its  bottom  is  the  Trenton 
rock. 

Lake  Ontario,  w^hich  averages  eight  hundred  feet  deep 
rests  on  the  Trenton  rock,  and  the  southern  shore,  in  ages 
gone  by,  was  about  thirty-five  miles  south  of  its  present 
shore. 

From  Oneida,  New  York,  to  the  Atlantic  Coast  there  is 
no  chance  to  obtain  either  gas  or  oil,  as  the  lower  rocks  are 
on  the  surface. 

Origin  of  Names  AppHed  to  New  York  State  Formations 
— The  Trenton  rock  receives  its  name  from  Trenton  Falls, 
New  York,  w^here  it  outcrops.  The  Clinton  takes  its  name 
from  Clinton,  New  York;  the  Medina  from  Medina,  New 
York,  and  the  Niagara  from  Niagara  Falls,  New  York. 

These  formations  dip  to  the  south  and  come  up  to  the 
mountains  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky." 

GEOLOGY   OF  THE    MID-CONTINENTAL    OIL    AND 
GAS  FIELD 

By  Erasmus  Ha  worth,  State  Geologist,  State  Geological 
Sur\^ey  of  Kansas. 

A.  Geography — "The  term  "]\Iid-Continental  Oil  and 
Gas  Field"  was  first  applied  to  the  oil  and  gas  fields  of 
Kansas  and  Oklahoma.     For  a  number  of  vears  this  was  all 

V 

the  territory  covered  by  the  name.  Later,  through  the 
influence  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  the  name 
was  extended  so  as  to  include  the  oil  fields  of  northern  Texas 
around  Electra  and  Corsicana,  and  the  oil  and  gas  fields  of 
northwestern  Louisiana. 

31 


GENERAL 


In  Kansas  the  field  covers  a  zone  extending  from  around 
Kansas  Citv  southwestward  across  the  State.  Its  western 
limit  has  not  yet  been  determined,  but  on  the  south  it  is 
known  to  reach  westward  to  beyond  Arkansas  City.  The 
extreme  southeast  corner  of  Kansas  and  northeast  part  of 
Oklahoma  are  out  of  the  oil  zone.  In  Oklahoma  the  zone 
widens  and  reaches  west  to  Healdton,  a  few  miles  west  of 
Ardmore.  From  here  it  crosses  into  Texas  around  Wichita 
Falls  and  Electra.  Possibly  the  Healdton,  Wichita  Falls, 
and  Corsicana  fields  are  distinct  from  the  main  field  and 
from  each  other,  but  probably  not.  The  oil  fields  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Louisiana  also  seem  to  be  distinct  from 
the  others,  but  geographically  may  be  included. 

B.  Geology — Throughout  the  greater  part  of  Kansas 
and  Oklahoma  the  oil  and  gas  bearing  formations  are  the 
Pennsylvanian  series  of  the  Carboniferous  system.  In  the 
western  part  of  the  f^eld,  however,  the  surface  rocks  are 
Permian,  as  around  Augusta,  Arkansas  Cit}^  and  Healdton. 
The  Permian  here  is  not  very  thick  and  the  wells  pass  through 
it  down  into  the  Pennsylvanian,  unless  it  should  be  at  Heald- 
ton, where  the  geology  has  not  been  very  well  worked  out. 
Also,  in  the  Wichita  Falls  area  the  surface  rocks  are  of 
Permian  geologic  age,  but  the  wells,  doubtless,  reach  down- 
wards into  the  Pennsylvanian.  At  Corsicana  the  surface  is 
covered  with  cretaceous  rocks,  which  seem  to  be  the  oil 
producers,  and  in  northwest  Louisiana  from  cretaceous  or 
younger  rocks. 

For  convenience  of  discussion  it  may  be  well  to  begin 
with  the  lowermost  Pennsylvanian  rocks  and  consider  them 
in  order  upwards.  For  this  purpose  the  geological  section 
of  Kansas  will  be  used  mainly,  because  it  has  been  worked 
out  here  better  than  elsewhere.  Conditions  in  Oklahoma 
different  from  those  in  Kansas  may  be  explained  later. 

The  Mississippian  Floor — For  convenience  of  studying 
the  mass  of  stratified  rocks  which  are  important  in  connection 

32 


GENERAL 

with  oil  and  gas  production  in  the  mid-continental  field, 
we  may  start  with  the  Mississippian  limestone  formation 
and  look  upon  it  as  a  floor  upon  which  all  other  rock  masses 
rest.  These  Mississippian  rocks  or  limestones  cover  the 
surface  throughout  a  large  area  in  northwestern  Arkansas, 
northeastern  Oklahoma  and  southwestern  Missouri,  cutting 
off  a  little  corner  in  the  extreme  southeast  part  of  Kansas. 
The  accompanying  map  shows  the  areas  where  the  Mississ- 
ippian limestones  are  exposed  to  the  surface. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  Mississippian  dips  westward 
at  a  gentle  slant  throughout  this  entire  region,  but  the  exact 
amount  of  dipping  differs  quite  materially  in  different  places. 
Along  the  south  line  of  Kansas  it  has  been  found  by  well 
borings  that  it  dips  west  almost  exactly  twenty-five  feet  to 
the  mile  on  an  average.  Southward,  in  Oklahoma  this  dip 
increases  to  from  40  to  75,  and  even  to  100  feet  to  the  mile 
in  extreme  instances,  and  the  direction  of  maximum  dip 
gradually  bears  more  to  the  southw^est. 

The  top  surface  of  the  Mississippian,  however,  lacks  a 
great  deal  of  being  regular,  having  been  made  irregular  by 
surface  erosion,  that  produced  river  channels  and  river 
valleys  in  the  top  of  the  limestone  which  often  throw  our 
calculations  into  error  from  50  to  100  feet.  Still  further,  the 
rate  of  dip  is  quite  uneven,  although  for  a  long  stretch  it  is 
almost  uniform.  Locally,  we  have  waves  produced  at  inter- 
vals, so  that  here  is  a  ridge  and  there  a  valley,  etc.,  making 
slight  dift'erences  of  depth  at  which  the  limestone  may  be 
reached. 

How  far  to  the  west  the  Alississippian  extends  no  one 
knows  to  a  certainty,  nor  do  we  know  l^ut  that  the  formations 
may  change  their  principal  properties  so  they  would  be 
difficult  to  recognize.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  no  such 
changes  amount  to  much  within  the  distance  as  far  west  as 
Ponca  City. 

33 


GENERAL 


Cherokee  Shales — Immediately  above  the  Mississippian 
limestone  lies  a  mass  of  shales,  which,  in  eastern  Kansas  is 
about  450  feet  in  thickness,  but  which  thicken  greatly  to 
the  southward  and  westward.  In  the  vicinity  of  Sedan,  in 
Chautauqua  County,  they  are  about  600  feet  thick,  and 
south  in  Oklahoma  in  the  vicinity  of  Drumright  the}^  are 
still  thicker.  Dr.  Carl  D.  Smith*,  of  the  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  calls  them  about  1000  feet  thick  at  the  Glenn  pool. 
Therefore,  they  are  wedge-shaped,  growing  thicker  to  the 
southwest  and  thinner  to  the  northeast. 

Sands  in  the  Cherokee  Shales — The  Cherokee  shales 
have  within  them  many  sandstone  beds  which  are  the  richest 
and  greatest  producers  of  oil  and  gas  in  the  entire  territory 
under  consideration. 

Near  their  top,  in  the  vicinity  of  Peru,  Kansas,  is  a  well 
developed  sandrock,  50  feet  or  more  in  thickness,  which  is 
very  productive  of  oil  and  gas,  and  which  has  been  named 
the  "Peru  Sand,"  probably  identical  with  the  Skinner  sand. 
It  is  doubtful  about  this  sand  extending  continuously  in  any 
direction  very  far,  but  rather  within  a  few  miles  it  will  pinch 
out  and  later  come  in  again.  That  characteristic  seems  to 
be  true  of  practically  all  the  sands  in  this  part  of  the  country. 

Below  the  Peru  sand  lies  the  main  producing  sand  at 
Bartlesville,  named  the  "Bartlesville  Sand,"  which  lies  in 
Kansas  about  200  feet  below  the  top  of  the  Cherokee  shales, 
but  in  the  Gushing  field  is  about  300  feet  below  the  Peru 
sand.  It  is  about  100  feet  thick  and  is  very  productive.  It 
is  the  producing  sand  in  all  the  best  wells  in  Kansas  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  Bartlesville,  Collinsville  and  on  down  south  to 
the  Glenn  pool,  and  in  Cleveland  and  Drumright,  where 
wells  have  a  capacity  of  from  5000  to  8000  barrels  per  day 
and  a  depth  of  2500  to  2800  feet,  as  explained  for  the  Peru 
sand. 

*Smith,  Dr.  Carl  D.,  U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.  Bui.,  541,  Fig.  1,  pp.  42. 

34 


GENERAL 

Other  sands  have  been  found  which  occupy  position 
below  the  Bartlesville  sand,  the  most  important  of  which 
has  been  named  the  "Tucker  Sands"  and  Hes  near  the  base 
of  the  Cherokee  shales.  In  some  other  localities  still  other 
names  have  been  given,  but  in  general  it  may  be  said  that 
there  is  some  little  doubt  regarding  the  reliability  of  names 
of  sands  that  have  been  used  for  wells  from  25  to  100  miles 
apart. 

Fort  Scott  Limestones — On  top  of  the  Cherokee  shales 
lies  the  Fort  Scott  limestones,  which,  in  earlier  days,  were 
named  the  Oswego  limestones,  a  term  by  w^hich  they  are 
still  known  to  many  of  the  drillers.  These  limestones  in 
reality  are  two  in  number,  separated  by  a  shale  bed  from  6 
to  15  or  20  feet  in  thickness.  The  lower  limestone  at  Fort 
Scott  is  the  Fort  Scott  cement  rock,  and  covers  the  surface 
throughout  the  main  part  of  the  town.  Above  this  is  the 
upper  Fort  Scott  limestone  which  does  not  have  the  cement 
quality.  Drillers  here  and  there  throughout  the  oil  field 
usually  do  not  separate  these  two  from  each  other,  and  as 
they  vary  in  thickness  from  place  to  place  sometimes  they 
are  reported  as  over  60  feet  in  thickness.  However,  one 
should  understand  that,  in  many  places,  two  of  them  exist 
separated  by  a  shale  bed  of  from  6  to  20  feet,  as  above  stated. 

This  limestone  mass  is  interesting,  in  a  good  many  ways. 
First,  when  the  driller  reaches  it  he  knows  he  may  be  close 
to  a  productive  sand,  and  proper  care  should  be  given. 
Next,  it  is  not  at  all  unusual  for  a  considerable  amount  of 
oil  or  gas  to  be  found  within  the  limestone,  so  that  one 
should  not  be  surprised  at  such  an  occurrence.  The  so-called 
Wheeler  sand,  according  to  Buttram,*  is,  in  reality,  the  Fort 
Scott  limestone.  At  Drumright  it  is  75  feet  thick,  and  lies 
about  2100  feet  below  the  surface. 

Pleasanton  Shale — Above  the  Fort  vScott  limestones  we 
have  a  series  of  alternating  beds  of  limestones  and  shale  with 
*Buttram,  Frank,  Oklahoma  Geol.  vSur.  Biil.  18,  p.  41. 

35 


GENERAL 


many  sandstones  occupying  a  part  of  the  shale.  These  are 
of  relatively  little  importance,  although  here  and  there  the 
sandstones  develop  into  reasonably  good  oil  producers.  The 
first  heavy  shale  bed  which  is  reached  above  the  Fort  Scott 
limestone  in  Kansas  is  known  as  the  "Pleasanton  Shale"  on 
account  of  the  wide  outcropping  in  the  vicinity  of  Pleasanton, 
Kansas.  In  many  places  these  shales  are  almost  all  changed 
into  sandstone,  while  elsewhere  they  are  typical  shales. 
Farther  to  the  west  and  southward  they  carry  sandstones 
which  are  important  producers.  In  Oklahoma,  particularly, 
and  also  in  Kansas  to  a  lesser  degree,  sandstones  which  seem 
to  lie  in  the  equivalent  of  the  Pleasanton  shale  become  very 
productive,  particularly  in  the  Gushing  field. 

Bethany  Limestone  Series — Above  the  Pleasanton 
shales,  and  resting  comfortably  upon  them,  we  have  another 
series  of  alternating  limestones  and  shales.  Each  individual 
limestone  has  been  named  and  also  each  shale,  but  for  our 
purpose  we  will  speak  of  the  entire  mass  as  the  Bethany 
Limestone  System.  In  Kansas  this  entire  mass  is  about  300 
feet  thick  and  will  average  about  65  to  75  per  cent,  limestone 
for  the  entire  300  feet.  In  most  of  the  well  records  reported, 
the  entire  distance  is  reported  as  limestone,  although  oc- 
casionally otherwise.  In  Oklahoma  this  group  of  limestone 
frequently  is  called  the  "Big  Lime,"  because  the  shale  beds 
in  places  become  very  thin  and  the  limestones  thicker,  so 
that  the  driUer  neglects  the  shales. 

Ida  Limestones — Above  the  limestones  just  described 
and  resting  comfortably  upon  overlying  shales  we  find  a 
very  heavy  limestone  which  has  a  great  extent  in  Kansas, 
but  which  does  not  retain  its  thickness  into  Oklahoma.  This 
is  the  lola  limestone,  and  is  a  very  important  marker  in 
drilling  in  Kansas.  At  lola  it  is  about  40  feet  thick,  and 
occupies  the  surface  of  the  ground  immediately  under  the 
town  of  lola. 

36 


GENERAL 

Lane  Shales — Above  the  lola  hmestone  is  a  heavy  mass 
of  shales  which  have  been  named  the  Lane  shales,  and  which 
in  places  carry  heavy  beds  of  sandstone  that  may  become 
producers  of  oil  and  gas  at  any  place  throughout  the  mid- 
continental  field.  The  Lane  shales  average  100  feet  or  more 
and  in  some  places  reach  fully  200  feet.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  the  sands  within  the  Lane  shales  are  the  Lawton  sands 
of  Oklahoma.  They  lie  above  the  Wheeler  (Fort  Scott) 
sands  about  700  to  800  feet. 

Allen  and  Stanton  Limestones — Above  the  Lane  shales 
we  have  two  limestones,  well  marked  in  places,  which  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  Vilas  shale  beds  of  variable 
thickness  but  usually  from  20  to  50  feet.  The  lower  one  of 
these  is  known  as  the  Allen  limestones  on  account  of  its 
occurence  in  Allen  County,  Kansas,  and  the  upper  one  is 
called  the  Stanton  hmestone,  an  old  name  given  it  by  Pro- 
fessor vSwallow  in  1866.  These  two  limestones  usually  are 
counted  as  one  by  well  drillers,  because  in  most  cases  the 
Vilas  shale  bed  between  them  is  so  small  that  the  well  drillers 
do  not  recognize  it.  The  two  jointly  constitute  a  very  heavy 
mass  of  limestone  which  covers  the  surface  throughout  large 
areas  of  Kansas  and,  hence,  are  worthy  of  special  recognition. 
The  sandstones  within  the  Lane  shales  below  have  already 
been  mentioned,  so  that  when  a  well  driller  finds  he  is  passing 
through  the  Allen  and  Stanton  limestone  he  may  not  be 
surprised  to  iind  a  good  flow  of  gas  or  oil  in  the  next  sand- 
stone. 

Lawrence  Shales — Omitting  a  few  lesser  limestones  and 
shale  beds  which  have  thicknesses  so  small  that  we  will  not 
consider  them  here,  we  come  next  to  a  mass  of  shales  which 
carry  a  great  quantity  of  sandstone,  and  hence  is  very  im- 
portant. They  have  been  named  the  Lawrence  shales.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Lawrence,  Kansas,  they  are  about  200  feet 
thick,  or  neglecting  a  thin  limestone  they  may  be  300  feet, 
but  southward  their  thickness  increases.    Also,  very  markedly 

37 


GENERAL 

they  grade  over  into  sandstones.  These  sandstones  of  them- 
selves are  important  and  prominent  throughout  all  the 
eastern  part  of  Chautauqua  County,  and  constitute  the  row 
of  hills  and  bluffs  in  the  vicinity  of  Niotaze,  Peru  and  Caney, 
and  from  here  southward  in  the  Osage  territor}^  just  west  of 
Bartlesville.  They  have  been  called  the  Chautauqua  sand- 
stones, but  the  person  who  is  trying  to  keep  a  clear  conception 
of  the  strata  of  the  rocks  throughout  the  oil  field  should 
think  of  them  as  being  equivalent  to  the  Lawrence  shales, 
and  as  lying  above  the  Stanton  limestone  and  below  the 
Oread  limestone. 

The  Chautauqua  sandstones  are  v^ery  important  as  gas 
producers  in  the  vicinity  of  Augusta,  where  they  are  found 
in  great  abundance  and  called  locally  the  Augusta  sands, 
and  as  oil  producers  near  Newkirk.  It  seems  that  they  have 
a  great  extent  both  north  and  south,  and  wells  drilled  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  encounter  them. 

Oread  Limestones — First  above  the  Lawrence  shales 
with  their  important  sandstones  comes  a  mass  of  limestone 
known  in  Kansas  as  the  Oread  limestones,  a  common  name 
for  Mount  Oread  at  Lawrence.  In  most  places  we  have  here 
two  limestone  masses  separated  from  each  other  by  about 
20  feet  of  shale.  They  extend  entirely  across  the  State  of 
Kaiisas  and  northwest  Missouri  into  Iowa,  and  cap  a  pro- 
minent escarpment  facing  eastward  throughout  this  entire 
distance. 

Near  the  eastern  line  of  the  State  they  are  on  top  of  the 
hills  at  Sedan  and  Elgin  and  separate  the  Chautauqua  sand- 
stones from  the  overlying  Elgin  sandstones  of  the  Oklahoma 
geologists.  They  constitute  one  of  the  most  prominent 
markers  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Pennsylvanian.  According 
to  Buttram*  they  extend  but  a  few  miles  into  Oklahoma  and 
entirely  disappear  b}"  gradually  growing  thinner,  so  that  they 
have  little  stratigraphic  importance  in  Oklahoma. 
♦Buttram,  Frank,  Oklahoma  Geol.  Sur.  Bui.  18,  p.  11. 

38 


GENERAL 

Above  the  Oread  limestones  in  Kansas  is  a  eomplex  of 
relatively  thin  shales  and  limestone,  alternating  with  each 
other,  which  constitute  the  vShawnee  stage  of  about  400  feet 
in  thickness,  and  extend  upward  to  the  Wabaunsee  stage  at 
the  bottom  of  which  lies  the  Burlingame  limestones.  It  is 
known  that  these  formations  thicken  to  the  south  end,  in 
general,  have  their  shales  grading  into  sandstones,  the  most 
prominent  one  of  which,  in  Oklahoma,  seems  to  be  the  Elgin 
sandstone  which  lies  first  above  the  Oread  limestone,  and 
which  is  used  as  a  geological  marker  extensively  by  Oklahoma 
geologists. 

Pawhuska  Limestone — Oklahoma  geologists  use  the 
name  Pawhuska  limestone  to  designate  a  limestone  which 
outcrops  near  Pawhuska, '^^  in  Osage  County,  Oklahoma. 
This  has  not  been  correlated  definitely  with  any  of  the  lime- 
stones occuring  in  Kansas.  According  to  Buttram  ''  the 
Pawhuska  limestone  lies  006  feet  below  the  Neva  limestone 
in  the  vicinity  of  Gushing.  This  would  bring  it  approxi- 
mately equivalent  with  the  Burlingame  limestone  of  Kansas, 
which,  in  the  generalized  section  for  Kansas,  is  about  500 
feet  below  the  Ne\'a  limestone.  Beede'^'  cahsittheequivalent 
of  the  Deer  Creek  or  Topeka  limestone  of  Kansas.  Un- 
fortunately no  one  has  traced  the  Pawhuska  limestone 
northward  from  Pawhuska  to  the  State  line,  so  as  to  learn 
to  a  certainty  with  what  Kansas  limestone  it  connects.  It 
may  be  depended  upon,  however,  that  it  is  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Burlingame  limestone. 

Wabaunsee  Stage — The  first  500  feet  above  the  Paw- 
huska-Burlingame  limestone  in  both  Kansas  and  Oklahoma 
consists  of  a  complex  of  alternating  limestones  and  shales 


(1)  Pawhuska  limestone,   Smith,   Jas.    Perrin;   Jour,    of  Geology, 
Vol.  2,  p.  199,  1894. 

(2)  Buttram,  Loc.  cited. 

(3)  Beede,  Dr.  J.  \V.,  Oklahoma  vState  Geol.  vSur.  Bui.  21,  p.  9. 

39 


GENERAL 


with  the  shales  greatly  predominating,  to  which  the  name 
"Wabaunsee  Stage"  have  been  given.  Nothing  herein  con- 
tained seems  to  have  very  much  significance  stratigraphically 
or  economically,  so  that  we  will  pass  over  this  distance  and 
enter  the  Permian.  Paleontologists  have  not  definitely 
decided  exactly  where  the  base  of  the  Permian  is,  but  all 
agree  that  it  is  close  to  the  Neva  limestone. 

Permian — Dr.  J.  W.  Beede^  has  given  us  a  reliable 
account  of  the  Xeva  limestone  in  Oklahoma.  It  enters 
Oklahoma  from  Kansas  a  few  miles  east  of  the  boundary 
line  between  Osage  and  Kay  counties,  and  trends  a  little 
west  of  south,  to  the  northern  line  of  Murray  County,  near 
the  northwest  corner,  beyond  which  it  has  not  been  traced. 
Progressing  southward  it  gradualy  changes  into  sandstone, 
so  that  throughout  its  southern  extension  it  is  a  sandstone. 

Assuming,  for  the  present,  that  the  base  of  the  Permian 
lies  near  the  Xeva  limestone,  we  have  the  eastern  limit  of 
the  Permian  marked  by  the  great  Flint  Hills  escarpment, 
which  is  so  prominent  in  Kansas  from  the  Cottonwood  river 
southward  and  across  into  Oklahoma  many  miles.  Immmedi- 
ately  above  the  Neva  we  have  about  130  feet  to  the  well 
known  Cottonwood  limestone,  which  is  so  prominent  in 
Kansas,  both  as  a  geological  marker  and  as  a  limestone  of 
great  commercial  importance.  The  lower  part  or  base  of  the 
Flint  Hills  is  occupied  largely  with  shales  alternating  with 
thin  limestones  for  a  distance  of  150  to  175  feet  upwards. 
Immediately  above  this  lies  a  great  mass  of  soft,  cream- 
colored  limestones  with  but  little  shale,  which  constitute  the 
topmost  part  of  the  Flint  Hills.  The  lower  one  of  these 
limestones  has  been  named  the  Wreford  limestone.  It  is  so 
heavily  charged  with  flint  that  in  places  fully  one-fourth  of 
its  volume  is  composed  of  flint  rock.  Its  thickness  varies 
greatly  from  north  to  south,  but  averages  45  feet  or  more. 
Immediately  above  it  we  have  the  Matfield  shales  65  feet  or 
(*)  Beede,  Dr.  J.  W.,  Oklahoma  Geol.  Sur.  Bui.  21.  p.  21. 

40 


GENERAL 

more  in  thickness,  which  are  followed  by  another  heavy  mass 
of  limestone,  the  lower  part  of  which  carries  an  enormous 
amount  of  flint,  corresponding  to  the  Wreford  limestone. 
The  lowermost  of  these  has  been  named  the  Florence  Flint 
and  the  upper  one  the  Fort  Riley  limestone.  In  some  places 
they  are  separated  by  thin  beds  of  shale  but  elsewhere  they 
come  so  close  together  that  drillers  do  not  recognize  a  break 
between  them. 

Above  the  P"'ort  Riley  we  have  (30  feet  or  more  of  the 
Doyle  shales  in  Kansas,  and  then  the  Winfield  limestone, 
which  is  about  25  feet  in  thickness  in  most  places.  These 
formations  combined  constitute  the  Chase  stage  of  Kansas 
geology,  named  from  Chase  County,  where  they  are  so 
abundant.  The  entire  thickness  varies  greatly  from  place 
to  place,  as  is  show  a  ])y  the  logs  of  wells  drilled  at  different 
places  from  Augusta  southward  to  Ponca  City.  Some  well 
records  show  a  continuous  mass  of  limestone  over  500  feet 
thick,  which  would  imply  that  the  Doyle  shales  of  the  Mat- 
field  shales  are  very  thin.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  a 
carefully  kept  well  record  would  show  that  they  do  not 
entirely  disappear  at  any  one  place. 

The  Flint  hills  area  represents  a  great  monocline  with 
the  rock  dipping  westward  along  the  south  line  of  Kansas 
at  a  uniform  rate  of  about  25  feet  to  the  mile,  which  possibly 
increases  westward  and  surely  increases  to  the  southwest, 
reaching  a  dip  of  30  feet  to  the  mile  or  more.  Substantially 
all  the  development  from  Augusta  southward,  including  all 
of  the  Augusta,  Winlield,  Arkansas  City,  Newkirk,  Black- 
well  and  Ponca  City  developments  start  at  or  near  the  upper 
surface  of  these  formations.  West  of  Arkansas  City  the 
overlying  Wellington  shales  are  encountered,  so  that  the 
many  deep  wells  from  3  to  10  miles  west  and  southwest  of 
that  place,  in  Kansas  and  Oklahoma,  have  their  beginning 
in  the  Wellington  shales.  A  careful  inspection  of  the  records 
of  these  wells  implies  that  the  deepest  of  them,  more  than 

41 


GENERAL 

3400  feet,  are  not  very  far  below  the  Fort  vScott  limestones. 
With  the  Cherokee  shales  apparently  growing  thicker  to  the 
west,  and  known  to  be  600  feet  thick  in  Chautauqua  County, 
Kansas,  it  is  probable  that  the  Swenson  well  and  others  in 
this  vicinity  would  have  to  go  nearly  4000  feet  to  reach  the 
bottom  of  the  Cherokee  shales.  This  is  an  important  point, 
because  well  drillers  in  general  think  they  have  reached  the 
Mississippian  limestone  in  this  part  of  the  field,  but  evidently 
they  are  in  error. 

Points  of  Difference — Geologic  conditions  in  Oklahoma 
in  many  respects  differ  materially  from  those  in  Kansas, 
although  they  have  been  treated  here  as  though  they  were 
substantially  the  same.  The  difference  consists  principally 
of  two  characters ;  first,  the  dip  of  the  stratified  rock  to  the 
west  and  southwest  is  a  little  greater  in  Oklahoma  than  in 
Kansas  and  also  gradually  becomes  greater  as  one  passes 
southward.  This  fact  is  true,  however,  for  the  entire  area 
both  in  Kansas  and  Oklahoma;  second,  the  greatest  and  most 
important  difference  is  that  throughout  Oklahoma  they  have 
much  less  limestone  and  much  more  shale  and  sandstone, 
and  the  formations  are  correspondingly  thickened.  In  Kan- 
sas our  best  stratigraphic  rock  leads  us  to  look  at  the  lime- 
stones as  the  important  markers,  in  fact  to  consider  them  as 
so  many  shelves  with  the  intervening  spaces  occupied  by 
shales  and  sandstones.  Near  the  southern  part  of  Kansas, 
as  already  pointed  out,  these  limestones  begin  growing 
thicker  and  sandstones  especially  increased  in  amount.  By 
the  time  we  have  reached  the  Cushing  field  in  our  southward 
migration  we  have  gotten  rid  of  nearly  all  thehmestoneandthe 
formations  are  correspondingly  nearly  all  sands  and  shales. 
The  well  records  from  Cushing  show  upon  an  average  less 
than  two  per  cent,  of  limestone  for  the  entire  depth,  while 
the  average  for  central  Kansas  will  be  about  twenty  per  cent, 
and  the  deep  wells  near  Arkansas  City  on  either  side  of  the 
line  show  an  intermediate  per  cent,  of  limestone. 

42 


GENERAL 


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It 


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III  I  z 
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o  s 

05 


II 


43 


GENERAL 


This  great  change  in  Hthologic  conditions  makes  it  very 
difficult  to  correlate  many  of  the  Oklahoma  formations  with 
those  in  Kansas.  It  also  leaves  us  under  the  necessity  of 
using  sandstone  beds  for  geologic  markers.  But  with  these 
same  sandstone  beds  having  limited  horizontal  extension,  as 
already  pointed  out,  they  become  correspondingly  unreliable. 
All  of  these  conditions  make  it  more  difficult,  therefore,  to 
determine  with  accuracy  the  geology  of  the  oil  fields  in 
Oklahoma  than  of  the  same  field  farther  north.  But  by 
keeping  in  mind  the  variations  as  given,  fairly  reliable  inter 
pretations  should  not  be  surrounded  with  insurmount- 
able difficulties. 

Structure — Figure  1  is  a  cross  section  of  the  mid-con- 
tinental field  near  the  south  line  of  Kansas,  extending  from 
Galena  to  Wellington,  showing  how  the  principle  limestones 
outcrop  producing,  with  the  soft  shales  below,  great  escarp- 
ments which  trend  across  the  State.  It  also  shows  how  all 
the  formations  dip  to  the  west  in  almost  parallel  plains. 
This  section  represents  only  the  principle  limestones  and  the 
vacant  spaces  between  should  be  thought  of  as  containing 
the  great  shale  masses  with  their  interbedded  sandstones  and 
a  few  limestones  which  have  been  omitted. 

Figure  2  is  an  east-west  section  copied  from  Dr.  Carl 
D.  Smith's*  article  on  the  Glenn  pool.  This  section  is  about 
60  miles  south  of  the  Kansas  Oklahoma  State  line,  or  75 
miles  south  of  Figure  1 . 

In  each  of  the  illustrations  the  limestone  beds  are  given 
a  slight  wavy  appearance  which  is  diagrammatical  but 
which  represents  in  a  degree  the  local  undulations  found  in 
many  places  here  and  there  throughout  the  mid-continental 
field.  Usually  an  oil  or  gas  pool  is  found  immediately  under 
an  anticlinal  arch,  although  in  some  places  the  deformation 
of  strata  is  so  mild  it  can  hardly  be  detected.  In  the  most 
pronounced  instances  the  reverse  dip  rarely  equals  100  feet 
*  Smith,  Dr.  Carl  D.,  U.  S.  Geol.  vSur.  Bui.  541,  p.  43.     1914. 

44 


GENERAL 


45 


GENERAL 

per  mile.  With  the  rock  dipping  to  the  west  upon  an  average 
of  from  20  to  30  feet  per  mile  a  mild  dip  to  the  east  or  even 
a  horizontal  position  implies  a  fold,  and  should  be  carefully 
examined.  In  Oklahoma,  particularly,  the  great  oil  and  gas 
pools  underlie  anticlines  in  almost  every  instance.  According 
to  Dr.  Wood's  map  (loc.  cit. '',)  an  anticline  trending  nearly 
east  and  west  passes  through  the  center  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive part  of  the  Glenn  pool  in  Township  17  north,  range 
12  east,  and  another  one  near  the  north  side  of  Township  18. 
The  Gushing  field  is  on  a  pronounced  anticline,  and  the  wells 
southeast  of  Newkirk  are  on  one  of  the  most  pronounced 
anticlines  in  the  entire  mid-continental  field.  In  a  few  in- 
stances fairly  good  oil  and  gas  have  been  found  where  the 
structure  was  not  marked. 

It  would  seem  that  should  one  find  an  anticline  in  the 
productive  area  one  might  be  almost  sure  production  would 
result  from  proper  prospecting. 

The  Healdton  Area — The  surface  rocks  in  Healdton  are 
classed  as  Permian  on  the  U.  S.  Geological  Sur^-ey  maps. 
The  production  at  Healdton  is  quite  shallow,  rarely  reaching 
1000  feet.  Xo  detailed  correlation  work  has  been  made 
connecting  the  Healdton  field  with  the  area  to  the  north, 
throughout  which  detailed  geology  is  known.  This  leaves 
it  so  that  little  can  be  said  regarding  the  geology  of  the 
Healdton  pool.  Apparently  the  oil  and  gas  come  from  sand- 
stones lying  within  the  Garrison  formation. 

Wichita  Falls— Electra  Field— The  Electra  field  is  still 
farther  to  the  southwest  and  the  surface  is  occupied  by 
Permian  rocks.  Here,  also,  we  have  but  little  detailed 
geologic  information  and  cannot  connect  the  Electra  field 
directly  with  the  Oklahoma-Kansas  fields.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  the  difference  of  detailed  geology  is  quite  marked 
so  that  a  casual  observation  would  make  it  appear  that  the 
two  areas  are  not  very  much  alike.  After  more  elaborate 
*  Loc.  cit.  Plate  3. 

46 


GENERAL 

field  work  has  been  done  by  competent  ^a-ologists  it  is  en- 
tirely possible  a  definite  relation  between  the  two  areas  may 
be  brought  out. 

Corsicana  Field — ^The  Corsicana  oil  field  lies  within  the 
upper  Cretaceous.  Locally  the  upper  Cretaceous  is  divided 
as  follows,  reading  downward: 

Navarro  Marls 800  feet. 

Taylor  Marls 1000    '' 

Austin  Chalk 400  to  600    '' 

Eagle  Ford oOO  to  600    " 

Woodbine 500  to  600    " 

The  oil  seems  to  lie  in  sandstones  within  the  Navarro 
and  Taylor  marls.  Oil  wells  in  the  vicinity  of  Elgin  and  San 
Antonio  are  situated  in  the  same  way,  which  implies  the 
possibility  of  greatly  extending  the  Corsicana  field  in  that 
part  of  the  State.  Oil  at  Corsicana  is  of  two  different  grades 
and  seems  to  come  from  two  different  sands  within  these 
marls.  That  obtained  immediately  wnthin  the  city  limits 
and  nearby  is  light  in  gravity  and  produces  about  60  per  cent, 
distillates,  w^hile  that  which  is  found  two  or  more  miles 
farther  east  is  much  heavier  in  gravity  and  much  less  pro- 
ductive of  kerosene  and  gasoline. 

It  would  be  difficult  and  probably  useless  to  try  to 
correlate  these  Texas  upper  Cretaceous  formations  witli 
similar  formations  farther  north  in  Oklahoma  and  Kansas, 
or  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  They  belong  to  the 
Cretaceous  rocks  which  were  formed  in  the  great  inland  seas 
during  Cretaceous  time,  which  produced  the  Cretaceous 
formations  extending  from  the  Gulf  region  northward  far 
into  Canada.  These  Cretaceous  rocks  here  and  there  are 
producers  of  oil  and  gas  in  many  parts  of  the  continent,  sucii 
as  Florence,  Colorado,  both  North  and  South  Dakota,  where 
much  gas  is  obtained  along  with  artesian  water  from  the 
Dakota  sandstone;  Medicine  Hat,  Canada,  a  great  gas  pool; 
and  the  Athabasca  river  region  to  the  north  of  Edmonton. 


GENERAL 


Doubtless  no  one  ever  will  be  able  to  connect  these  fields  in 
detail,  but  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Corsicana  field  lies 
in  the  same  general  geologic  position  with  so  many  other 
productive  areas." 

Gas  Bearing  Strata — The  gas  bearing  strata  which  when 
pierced  by  the  drill  produces  natural  gas  is  sometimes  called 
a  "gas  vein,"  a  "gas  pool,"  a  "gas  reservoir,"  a  "gas  sand," 
etc.  Practical  geologists  quite  often  can  locate  an  anti- 
cline or  a  syncline  or  other  formation  where  gas  or  oil  is 
likely  to  be  found  but  the  drill  is  the  only  positive  way 
of  telling  where  there  is  an  underlying  gas  filled  strata. 

The  sand  itself  must  be  porous  in  order  to  contain  gas 
or  oil,  and  most  important  of  all,  the  gas  bearing  strata  must 
be  covered  by  an  upper  strata  of  hard  non-porous  rock, 
commonly  called  the  "shell"  which  prevents  the  gas  from 
gaining  an  outlet  to  some  upper  strata.  The  tendency  of  gas 
is  to  move  upward  or  parallel  to  its  source  until  its  movement 
is  checked  by  a  non-porous  rock  or  the  gas  escapes  into 
the  atmosphere,  as  is  commonly  found  at  out  croppings. 
Generally  the  larger  the  pores  or  the  coarser  the  sand  in  a 
gas  bearing  strata  the  shorter  the  life  of  the  gas  from  that 
particular  sand. 

The  area  and  thickness  of  a  gas  bearing  strata  of  sand 
varies  greatly.  It  may  be  40  feet  thick  in  one  spot  and  only 
100  feet  distant  but  2  feet  thick  or  even  void  of  any  pores  in 
which  the  gas  is  confined.  It  may  be  miles  in  length  in  one 
direction  while  it  is  but  a  few  hundred  feet  wide.  Its  edges 
may  be  round  in  outline  or  it  may  be  oval.  There  is  abso- 
lutely no  rule  or  theory  to  go  by  in  determining  the  area  or 
shape  of  a  known  gas  bearing  strata.  It  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  the  drill. 

There  may  be  two  gas  wells  a  hundred  feet  apart  with 
no  connection  between  the  gas  bearing  strata. 

Remarkable  Natural  Gas  Reservoirs  in  North  America 
— No  other  country  has  produced  more  than  a  small  fraction 

48 


GENERAL 

f)f  the  natural  f,^as  produced  b}-  the  L'nited  .States  and  Canada. 
While  mainly  confined  to  the  v^alley  of  the  ^Mississippi, 
the  gas  areas  hav^e  greatly  increased  and  are  now  to  be  found 
in  Ontario,  Alberta,  New  York  and  California.  The  main 
areas  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia  and  Ohio  have  de- 
veloped remarkable  staying  qualities,  and  considerable  new 
production.  These  three  States  produce  two- thirds  of  the 
total  production  of  this  continent.  Indiana  is  the  only  State 
that  has  shown  any  appreciable  falling  ofT  in  the  production 
of  gas.  In  this  State  gas  was  found  principally  in  the  Trenton 
limestone,  here,  as  in  the  Trenton  limestone  of  Central  New 
York,  the  supply  is  soon  exhausted.  It  has  been  generally 
considered  by  geologists  that  the  origin  of  natural  gas  is 
below  the  Trenton  limestone,  as  this  limestone  has  never 
shown  the  proper  formation  to  produce  natural  gas  in  paying 
quantities,  probably  due  to  the  amount  of  cement  which  it 
carries,  which  has  a  great  tendency  to  form  pockets. 

The  mid-continental  field  has  shown  a  greater  increase 
in  production,  during  the  past  two  years,  than  any  other 
natural  gas  area.  The  Kansas  production  has  dropped  off 
considerably,  but  it  has  been  ofifset  by  the  development  of 
new  areas,  such  as  Tulsa,  Ponca  City,  Ossage  Nation, 
Choteau,  Collinsville,  Ada,  Duncan  and  many  smaller  fields 
in  Oklahoma;  Petrolia,  Mexia,  Laredo,  Thurber,  Albany  and 
Trickham  Texas;    Caddo  and  DeSotto  Parish  in  Louisiana. 

The  New  York  and  Ontario  fields  where  gas  is  found  in 
the  Medina  sandstone  have  ne\xr  developed  any  large  wells, 
but  have  gradually  spread  out  over  an  extensive  area,  and 
have  shown  wonderful  staving  power.  Instances  are  known 
to  the  writer  where  wells  in  New  York  state  have  produced 
gas  in  paying  quantities  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years, 
a:id  are  still  good  producers. 

The  Alberta  field  has  developed  many  exceptionally  large 
wells.    The  great  volume  already  produced  can  be  taken  as  a 

49 


GENERAL 


very  good  indication  of  the  Alberta  field  as  a  gas-producing 
province. 

Small  gas  areas  are  to  be  found  in  Illinois,  Kentucky, 
California,  Wyoming,  Alabama,  Colorado,  New  ^Mexico, 
Oregon  and  vSouth  Dakota.  None  of  these  fields  is  fully 
de\^eloped,  consequently  it  is  impossible  to  predict  what  the 
future  will  produce. 

In  foreign  countries  there  is  some  gas  produced  in  Russia, 
Persia,  Roumania,  Galicia,  India,  Japan  and  Alexico. 
England  produces  a  limited  amount. 

In  the  year  1913  the  total  production  of  natural  gas  in 
the  United  vStates  and  Canada  was  nearly  six  hundred 
billion  cubic  feet. 

It  is  estimated  that  not  less  than  tweh^e  millions  of  our 
inhabitants  are  enjoying  the  benefits  of  this  ideal  fuel,  as  a 
source  of  heat,  light  and  power. 

Many  of  the  natural  gas  pools  in  the  United  vStates  are 
associated  with  the  petroleum  producing  areas,  to  which  they 
often  form  a  fringe  or  border  near  by,  the  gas  occupying  the 
higher  portions  of  the  same  strata  that  contain  the  petroleum. 
There  are,  however,  numerous  areas  that  produce  large 
quantities  of  natural  gas  that  are  completely  isolated  from 
am'  petroleum  production. 

Productive  Natural  Gas  Horizons — The  chart  of  pro- 
ductive natural  gas  horizons  shown  on  the  following  page 
was  prepared  with  a  view  of  showing  the  various  oil  and 
gas  sands  with  reference  to  their  age  and  position  in  the 
stratified  rocks  forming  the  earth's  crust.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  some  of  the  oil  fields  have  not  been  given  thorough 
geological  study  and  also  that  geologists  are  not  yet  certain 
regarding  the  age  of  scA^eral  of  the  formations,  this  chart  is  of 
course  approximated.     Asterisks  (*)  indicate  uncertainty. 


50 


GENERAL 

TABLE   SHOWING 
PRODUCTIVE  NATURAL  GAS  HORIZONS 


Era 

Geological 
System 

Geological 
Series  of 
Group 

Producing  Formation 
or  Sand 

Locality  where 
Productive 

Quarter- 
nary 

Recent 

Series 

Alluvial  Deposits 

Beaumont,  Tex. 
Jennings,  La. 

Tertiary 

Pliocene* 

u 

o 

Upper 
Mio- 
cene 

Jacalitos  Formation 

Coalinga,  Cal. 
McKittrick-SunsetCal. 

o 

o 

Fernando  Formation 

Santa  Clara  River,  Cal. 
Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

o 

Middle 
Mio- 
cene 

Monterey  Shale 

Santa  Maria,  Cal. 
Summerland,  Cal. 

Puente  Formation 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Salt  Lake  District,  Cal. 

Lower 
Mio- 
cene 

Vaqueros  Sandstone 

Coalinga,  Cal. 
McKittrick-Sunset  Cal. 
Santa  Clara  River,  Cal. 

Eocene 
Series 

Tejon  Formation 

Coalinga,  Cal. 

Sespe  Formation 

Santa  Clara  River, Cal. 

Cretac- 
eous 

Upper 
Cretac- 
eous 

Chico  Formation 

Coalinga,  Cal. 

Mancos  Shale 

Colorado 
Lander,  Wyo. 
Wind  River,  Wyo. 

Dakota  Sandstone 

North  Dakota 
Alberta,  Canada  (Gas) 

D 

Webbervdile  Formation 

Corsicana,  Tex. 

n 

Aspen  Formation 

Spring  Valley,  Wyo. 

8 

'A 

Colorado  Formation 

Big  Horn  Ba.sin,  Wyo. 

Wall  Creek  Sandstone 
(Lentil  of  Benton  Shale) 

Salt  Creek,  Wyo. 

Nacatoch  Sand 

Caddo,  La.  (Gas) 

Woodbine  Sand 

Caddo.  La.  (Oil) 

Lower 

Cretaceous 

Trinity  Sand 

Medill,  Okla. 

Jurassic 

Sundance  Formation 

N.  E.  Wyoming 

Triassic 

* 

Chugwater  Formation 

Wyoming 

51 


GENERAL 

The  following  table  by  F.  H.  Oliphant  shows  the  strata 
in  descending  order,  that  are  known  to  contain  natural  gas 
in  greater  or  less  quantity  in  the  localities  named,  beginning 
with  Pittsburgh  coal,  which  caps  the  upper  barren  measures 
of  the  carboniferous,  and  extending  to  the  Quebec  group  of 
the  Cambrian.  The  distance  from  the  Pittsburgh  coal  to  the 
lower  Trenton  is  given  approximately,  and  the  approximate 
intervals  can  be  found  by  subtracting  one  from  the  other. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  all  of  the  strata  named  are 
universally  productiv^e,  but  that  the  horizons  in  the  localities 
named  are  productiv^e. 

In  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
natural  gas  occurs  principally  in  the  strata  beginning  w4th 
the  higher  carboniferous  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  Trenton, 
a  distance  of  over  9,000  feet.  The  rocky  reser\^oirs,  and 
strata  associated  with  them,  vary  considerably  in  thickness 
and  texture.  This  section  is  compiled  from  records  of  w^ells 
near  McDonald,  Allegheny  County,  Pennsylv^ania,  and  ex- 
tends northeast  to  central  New  York,  where  the  lower  strata 
are  productive. 

The  fact  that  the  very  lowest  rocks  of  the  Trenton  lime- 
stone yield  the  greatest  known  gas  pressure,  amounting  in 
New  York  to  1,500  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  indicates  that 
all  of  these  different  horizons  are  supplied  from  a  common 
deep-seated  source,  and  that  the  gas  is  not  indigeneous  to  the 
strata  in  which  it  is  found  stored.  This  common  source  is 
probably  deeply  covered  by  Paleozoic  rocks  which  have  been 
more  or  less  disturbed  by  folds  that  have  produced  slight 
fractures  in  the  strata.  These  have  served  as  vents  for  the 
passage  of  natural  gas  into  the  overlying  porous  strata,  where 
it  is  found  to-day.  Many  of  these  sands  contain  large  quan- 
tities of  petroleum,  but  pools  of  natural  gas  are  much  more 
generally  distributed  and  occupy  a  much  larger  area  than  the 
pools  of  petroleum,  both  of  which  have  a  common  origin. 

52 


GENERAL 


Approx. 

Depth 

Below 

Pittsburgh 

Coal 

i     §§ 

920 

970 

1.060 

1.140 

0  in 

01  CO 

.— 1    i-H 

CO 

^     1-1 

P  9 

5 

> 

-t- 
0. 

c 

o'b] 
1- 

-(- 

X 

'c 

o'b] 

i- 

> 

X 

;     d 

•;;    •;;       S 

X;          X            -r^ 

?^     ^         > 
C      C         X 

•S  ■£     £ 

OS      oJ       ^.   . 
>      >       ^> 

P^   Ph     o  t 

S.E.Ohio.  S.W.  Pennsylvania  and  W.  Va. 

S.E.Ohio,  S.W.  Pennsylvania  and  W.Va. 

S.E.Ohio,  S.W.  Pennsylvania  and  W.Va. 

Kansas  and  Indian  Territory.  S.  \l.  Ohio. 
S.  W.  Pennsylvania.  West  \'irginia  and 
E.  Kentucky 

Not  productive 

S.  E.  Ohio  and  West  \'irginia 

West  Virginia,  S.  W.  Per.nsylvania.  S.  1{. 
Ohio  niifl  T<*.    Kentiiekv                   

5 

rt     • 
> 

x' 

^  1 

'bJc  C 
.J:;   cJ 

lo 

< 

as  a: 

13 
o 
o 

"x 

-  U 
-a   r 
C    ^ 

Si 

o  a 

X    C 

c 

C 

c 

1 

r 

5 

X 

X          c 

\1  ll 
1  n 

TJ  TJ  "C  ii 
cS   S   rt   X 

o  i;  -c  E 

rrti 
§11 L    \ 

^  c  -  E  :i       t 

§  ^  ^  b.  -     t 

3^2255       7 
>     rt  o  o  U  ><        .:: 

3     ^  o  o  o^          = 

.§    5 

r 

E 

a 

b  1 

w 

;  c 
) 

;   V 

J   r 

J  > 

bJC_J    s 

^                         X 

j:  i-H         o  s^ 

53 


GENERAL 


■^  lO  O  O  lO  O  O  O  O  lO  O  O  O     O  lO  o  to  o  o 

'^  CO  CO  lO  lO.— irHt-  C0-^OO(MCi00O00OCvJ 

jA'  lO  {>■_  i>  C»  0^_  0_  O^  f-f^  r-H  C\J  C\I  ■^_^     iq  O  00  00  O  i-H 

"^  r-(  nH  ,-(  ,-1  ^  c\j  c\j  C\J  (M  Ca  C\J  C\J      (M  Cq"  CVJ  Cvj  CO  CO 


K  > 

<  ^ 
o 


^^i 

^^-.2  . 


c  s  '5 


to    05     ?^>7    r"    C  •'^  '-^  -^  .^ 

'^'^  ^  J  k>   >     •  n  rt  ci  rt 


ci   rt   rt  -o 


+J  +J  +J  ^ 

tn  w  :/2  .*^ 

o  o  o  ^ 

C  G  C  > 

cS  03  rt  '-^ 


p   ^     X  ^     >.    P^    >.    >> 


■     •    •  a 
•■p  i£  ex-'- 


-Z  .«  ^  rt      rt  .^ 


^       ^    rt    rt    C3    C3    rt 


5  ct  rt  ci  rt  n 

K^    X     X     X     X     X 


^^^^oS^^pHp:^  Ph' 


o  S  o  J!  .2 
Ph  Pu,  dn  II,  j; 

.  .  .  .o 


X  ^  ^  ^  ^  :^ 


►4  ^ 


Mo 


^  c  J-- 


rt 


c  o 
■3^  c 


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O 


Q     S     g 


c/2  c 

OH 


*^  J=   X   - 

^t:^::  ci 


o  ^  =^3  ^ 


c/:p3 


Opa 


ail 


54 


GENERAL 


r- 

1 

S5*l^ 

^  o  o  .o  uO  .o  o  o  o 

o  o  ir:  ic  in  o  o       in 

O  (M  X  X  X  ii*  O         Ol 

1 

u  -  o  ;:;  g 

^  00  CO  CO  00  lO  in  lO  lO 

J>  X  c:.  o  -H  0}  i^       <M 
i.o  o"  iC  -o  CO  :o  x"      c: 

PL. 

~,  - ' 

^  ^  ^  ^ 

•  1-1 

■  2    ■ 

*rt 

u    u    u    u. 

>H  ;>  ><  >H 

1> 

III 

^ 

~ 

^  ^  ^  ^ 

oj  o  a  c-» 

^Z>'^^    : 

Z 

> 

r 

w 

(Hi 

'i^'^ZZ 

O'rt 

-^     "       CJ       Q            . 

> 

2 

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r  X  ^  >   :  r:-  - 

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rt  ti 

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-a  -a  -o  -o  '^ 

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o'^2>l  -11 

7; 

Z 

^  H 

d  rt  rt  S^^^  o 

u 

s.  H 

>>S  I       -'^^^ 

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rf   d   rt   rt   .   ,  ,  < /^  r- 

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55 


GENERAL 


THE  FIRST  OIL  WELL  IN  AMERICA  AT  TITUSVILLE, 
PA.,  AUGUST  27,  1859. 


C4 


Fig.  3.      THE  DRAKE  WELL. 

Depth  693/^  feet.  Produced  20  barrels  per  day 
for  one  year.  Man  with  silk  hat.  Col.  E.  L.  Drake. 
Man  on  his  left,  Peter  Wilson,  his  friend.  Boys  on  the 
right,  sons  of  Wm.  Smith,  the  driher,  who  assisted  their 
father.  Commenced  drilling  May  20,  1859;  completed 
Saturday,  August  27,  1859.  Photograph  taken  August  17, 
1861. 


56 


GENERAL 

History  of  Natural  Gas — Xatural  gas  was  known  to  exist 
in  China,  Persia  andBritisii  India  for  many  centuries,  although 
it  was  nev^er  put  to  commercial  use.  It  appeared  as  leakage 
from  gas-bearing  strata  through  crevices  in  the  ground,  and 
when  lighted  by  the  natives,  it  was  worshipped  as  a  fire  "god." 

At  a  burning  well  near  Baku,  Russia,  are  the  ruins  of  an 
old  Parsee  temple,  dedicated  to  the  God  of  Fire. 

In  this  country,  as  early  as  1775,  George  Washington 
dedicated  to  his  country,  as  a  national  park,  a  tract  of  land 
which  he  had  preempted,  in  West  Virginia,  containing  a 
burning  spring.  This,  too,  w^as  leakage  from  a  crevice  in 
the  ground. 

The  first  discovery  of  natural  gas  by  drilling  in  the  United 
vStates  occurred  through  the  drilling  of  shallow  wells  for  salt 
in  Ohio  and  West  Virginia,  and  probably  dates  back  to  early 
in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Along  the  Muskingum  River  in  Ohio  in  the  early  thirties 
many  salt  wxUs  were  drilled  to  a  shallow  depth  of  from  three 
hundred  to  four  hundred  feet.  These  wells  were  located 
along  the  river  from  vStockport  to  Duncan  and  the  making 
of  salt  became  an  industry  of  importance. 

Rufus  vStone,  one  of  the  first  operators  in  the  salt  making 
business  at  AlcConnelsvillc,  in  the  Morgan  field,  in  drilling 
for  salt  struck  a  vein  of  natural  gas  strongly  impregnated 
with  sulphur,  w4iich  caused  the  drillers  to  exclaim  "we  have 
drilled  through  into  hell." 

At  first  Mr.  Stone  considered  the  well  a  failure  but  later 
Captain  Harry  Stull  solved  the  problem  for  him,  making  the 
gas  boil  the  water  in  making  the  salt.  This  was  continued 
for  forty  years. 

The  first  actual  use  of  natural  gas  for  light  occurred  in 
Fredonia,  New  York,  in  1826,  but  it  was  not  until  1872  that 
Titusville,  Pennsylvania,  was  piped  for  natural  gas  for  do- 
mestic purposes,  the  gas  being  delivered  through  a  two-inch 
line  from  the  Newton  well  about  five  miles  north  of  Titus- 
ville. 


GENERAL 

From  that  time  the  natural  gas  industry  has  had  a 
phenomenal  growth,  increasing  from  a  domestic  service  to 
perhaps  a  hundred  people  to  the  present  total  of  about  tu'o 
million  consumers,  serving  approximately  twelve  million 
people. 

First  Use  of  Artificial  Gas — In  the  year  1812  the  Gas 
Light  and  Coke  Company  of  London  obtained  a  charter  to 
supply  gas  to  that  city.  William  ^Murdoch  was  the  inventor 
of  coal  gas  and  lighted  his  home  with  it  in  the  year  1792.  He 
was  connected  with  the  above  mentioned  company  when  they 
first  applied  for  their  charter,  three  years  before  it  was  finally 
granted. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  application  before  the  House  of 
Parliament,  a  great  deal  of  ridicule  was  directed  toward  Mr. 
Miirdock  and  his  company. 

"Do  you  mean  to  tell  us,"  asked  one  member,  "that  it 
will  be  possible  to  have  a  light  without  a  wick?" 

To  which  Alurdock  answered  in  the  affirmative,  for  the 
best  of  all  reasons — that  he  himself  had  produced  a  light  with 
gas. 

"Ah!  m}^  friend,"  said  the  representative  of  the  people 
in  the  House,  "you  are  trying  to  prove  too  much." 

Alen,  talented  and  educated,  heaped  ridicule  upon  the 
work  of  that  little  band  of  heroes  who  foregathered  at  Soho, 
Birmingham.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  great  as  was  his  admiration 
for  James  Watt,  made  various  smart  jokes  about  the  ab- 
surdity of  lighting  London  with  smoke.  People  implicitly 
believ^ed  that  the  gas  was  carried  through  the  pipes  on  fire, 
and  the}"  foresaw  awful  results  from  red-hot  metal. 

To-day  the  Gas  Light  and  Coke  Compam^  of  London 
has  a  capital  stock  of  $150,000,000,  and  in  the  year  1911 
burned  two  million  tons  of  coal  and  made  about  twenty- 
seven  billion  feet  of  gas. 

Natural  Gas  in  Fredonia,  N.  Y. — The  ''Fenny  Maga- 
zine/' a  London  weekly,  on  August  26,  1837,  published  an 

58 


GENERAL 

article  taken  from  "Brewsler's  Journal,''  under  date  of  1830 
and  which  is  reprinted  herewith  as  a  matter  of  general 
interest: 

VILLAGE  LIGHTED  BY  NATURAL  GAS 

The  Village  of  Fredonia  in  the  Western  part  of  the  State  of  New- 
York  presents  this  singular  phenomenon.  I  was  detained  there  a 
day  in  October  of  last  year,  and  had  an  oi)portunity  of  examining  it 
at  leisure.  The  village  is  forty  miles  from  Buffalo,  and  about  two 
miles  from  Lake  Erie;  a  small  but  rapid  stream,  called  the  Canado- 
way,  passes  through  it,  and  after  turning  several  mills  discharges 
itself  into  Lake  Erie  below;  near  the  mouth  is  a  small  harbour  with 
a  lighthouse. 

While  removing  an  old  mill  which  stood  partly  over  the  stream  in 
Fredonia,  three  years  since,  some  bubbles,  were  observed  to  break 
frequently  from  the  water,  and  on  trial  were  found  to  be  inflammable. 
A  company  was  formed,  and  a  hole  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter, 
being  bored  through  the  rock,  a  soft,  fetid  limestone,  the  gas  left  its 
natural  channel  and  ascended  through  this.  A  gasometer  was  then 
constructed,  with  a  small  house  for  its  protection,  and  pipes  being 
laid,  the  gas  is  conveyed  through  the  whole  village.  One  hundred 
lights  or  less  are  fed  from  it,  at  an  expense  of  one  dollar  and  a  half 
yearly  for  each.  The  flame  is  large,  but  not  so  strong  or  brilliant  as 
that  from  gas  in  our  cities;  it  is,  however,  in  high  favour  with  the 
inhabitants.  The  gasometer,  1  found  on  measurement,  collected 
eighty-eight  feet  in  twelve  hours  during  the  day,  but  the  man  who 
has  charge  of  it  told  me  that  more  might  be  procured  with  a  larger 
apparatus.  About  one  mile  from  the  village,  and  in  the  same  stream, 
it  comes  up  in  quantities  four  or  five  times  as  great.  The  contractor 
for  the  lighthouse  purchased  the  right  to  it,  and  laid  pipes  to  the 
lake;  but  found  it  impossible  to  make  it  descend,  the  difference  in 
elevation  being  very  great.  It  preferred  its  own  natural  channels, 
and  bubbled  up  beyond  the  reach  of  its  gasometer.  The  gas  is  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  and  is  supposed  to  come  from  beds  of  bituminous 
coal;  the  only  rock  visible,  however,  here,  and  to  great  extent  on 
both  sides  along  the  Southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  is  fetid  limestone. 

Deepest  Drilled  Wells — The  deepest  drilled  hole  is  at 
Czuchow,  Silesia,  which  reached  a  depth  of  7,349  feet.  Its 
diameter  is  about  17  inches  at  the  top  and  about  2  inches  at 
the  bottom,  where  the  temperatm'e  is  about  182  deg.  fahr. 
It  cost  $18,241  and  was  completed  in  1893  after  one  and 
one-half  years  of  work. 

The  deepest  diamond  drilled  well  is  located  at  Dornk- 
loof,  sixteen  miles  east  of  Randfontein,  South  Africa.  It  is 
5,560  feet  deep,  2  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top  and  1  3-8 

59 


GENERAL 


inches  at  the  bottom,  and  was  completed  in  1904,  after  four- 
teen months  of  actual  work. 

The  deepest  well  drilled  in  America  is  located  at  Candor, 
Washington  County,  Pennsylvania,  and  is  being  put  down 
by  the  People's  Natural  Gas  Company  of  Pittsburgh,  Penn- 
sylvania. At  the  present  writing,  June,  1915,  the  drillers 
have  a  fishing  job  at  a  depth  of  7181  feet.  The  following 
give  a  few  facts  of  work : 

Dimensions  of  Derrick 
Base  26  feet. 
Derrick  90  feet. 
Bull  Wheel  Shaft  2  feet. 
Bull  Wheel  Gudgeons  5i^"  Steel.  « 

Crown  Pulley  Gudgeons  6"  Steel. 
Band  Wheel'Shaft  6". 
Wrist  Pin  4". 
Band  Wheel  18"  x  12  feet. 
Belt  8  ply  16"  x  105  feet. 
Engine  14"  x  14"  52-h.  p. 
2— 30-h.  p.  Boilers. 

Amount  of  Casing  Used 
232  feet— 13"  Casing. 


953     ' 

U     _;^Q.            U 

1,969 

u    _   sy^r    u 

6,053 

U     _    QY^"      U 

6,102 

u    _   53^.    u 

6,265 

u    _  ^y"    u 

Dimensions  of  Hole  where  it  was  reduced 

16  inch  Hole     232  Feet. 

13      " 

953       " 

10      " 

''     1,969      " 

8H  " 

"     6,053      " 

5M  " 

"     6,102      " 

Depth    to    which    Well  was  drilled    w'ith    a  2Xi" 

Length 

.  3,720  Feet. 

Cables  Used  in  Drilling  Well 

1-2M" 

Manilla  Cable  2,000  feet. 

1-214" 

''      3,000     " 

1—1"  X 

7,000  feet  Wire. 

1-1^" 

to  %"  8,000  ft.  Wire. 

1     1  // 

8,000  ft. 

1 — 1" 

8,000  ft. 

1—1"— 

\}4"—VA"  8,000  ft.  Taper. 

Sand  Lines 

man  ill  a  cable, 


1—H"  X  7,000  feet. 
1—1^"  X  8,000  feet. 
1— A"  X  8,000  feet. 


60 


GENERAL 


Depth  at  which  Explosions  of  Gas  occurred 


At  4,850  feet. 

"  4,870     " 

"  5,900      " 

"  5,905     " 

"  5,910      " 

"  5,915      " 

"  6,060      " 

Record  of  Temp 

eralures 

Taken  in  Well 

At  5,150  feet     110  degrees  fahr. 

"  5,220      "       120 

" 

"  5,800      "       140 

" 

"  6,000      "       150 

li 

"  6,095      "       156 

" 

R.  A.  GEARY  WELL  No.  770 

llu 

1  Below 

Coal 

Formation 

Top 

Bottom 

Conductor 

16' 

13"  Casing 

232 

Limestone 

450 

470' 

Slate 

470 

595 

Freeport  Coal 

595 

600 

Water  at 

600 

Gas 

760 

Salt  Sand 

734 

950 

Gas 

912 

Pencil  Cave 

950 

953 

Big  Lime 

953 

982 

10"  Casing 

953 

Big  Injun  Sand 

982 

1,241 

Gas 

1,052 

Squaw  Sand 

1,378 

1,392 

Gas 

1.379 

Sand 

1,610 

1,622 

Hundred  Foot  Sand.  .  . 

1,794 

1,817 

Gas 

1,797 

Thirty  Foot  Sand 

1,910 

1,925 

Gas 

1,912 

Gordon  Strav 

1,968 

1,971 

8H"  Casing.' 

1,969 

White  Slate 

1,971 

2,990 

Limestone 

2,990 

3,210 

White  Slate 

3,210 
3,440 

3,440 

Reduced  Hole 

Limestone 

3,440 

3,450 

White  Slate 

3,450 

4.100 

Sand  and  Lime 

4.100 

4.170 

White  Slate 

4,170 

4.520 

Black  Slate 

4,520 

4,550 

White  Slate 

4,550 

5,200 

Black  Slate 

5,200 

5,320 

61 


GENERAL 


R.  A.  GEARY  WELL  No.  77G—(Co}itiuiied) 

Formation                    Top  Bottom 

Black  Shale 5,320  5,520 

White  Slate 5,520  5,660 

Limestone 5,660  5,680  (Supposed  Guelph) 

Black  Lime 5,680  5,788  (         "         Niagara) 

Black  Slate 5,788  6.008 

Black  Lime 6.008  6,023 

Flint 6,023  6.045 

Gray  Sand 6,045  6,200 

6%"  Casing 6,053  

Water  and  Gas 6,060  

Brown  Sand 6,200  6,260 

Water 6,260  6,265 

White  Sand 6,260  6,270 

Brown  Sand 6,270  6,315 

Black  Lime 6,315  6,395 

Sand  and  Black  Flint..    6,395  6,405 

Black  Lime 6.405  6,515 

White  Sand 6,515  6,530 

Gas 6,522  

Black  Limestone 6,530  6,610 

Gray  Limestone 6,610  6,700 

Rock  Salt 6,700  6,708 

Lime  and  Sand 6.708  6,775 

Rock  Salt 6,775  6.785 

Limestone 6,785  6.830 

Rock  Salt 6.830  6.840 

Lime  and  Sand 6.840  6.860 

Rock  Salt 6,860  6.865 

Limestone 6.865  6.870 

Rock  Salt 6,870  6,875 

Limestone 6.875  6.895 

Rock  Salt 6.895  6.900 

Limestone 6.900  6.910 

Rock  Salt 6,910  6,925 

Limestone  and  Sand  .  .    6.925  7.020 

Salt  and  Lime  Shells  .  .    7,020  7.040 

Sand  and  Lime 7,040  7,181 

A  "Freak"  Gas  Well — A  very  interesting  producing  gas 
well  was  discovered  in  February,  1915,  in  the  Kansas  field. 

The  well  was  located  in  the  southern  end  of  a  well- 
defined  producing  area  in  which  all  of  the  wells  previously 

drilled  had  been  productive  in  a  1,600  foot  sand  of  close 
formation,  giving  the  wells  a  relatively  small  open-flow 
capacity,  the  average  for  the  flow  being  about  1,000,000 
cu.  ft.  a  day,  and  the  maximum  not  more  than  4,000,000 
cu.  ft.  for  wells  previously  drilled. 


62 


GENERAL 

The  other  weHs  in  the  Held  struck  the  sand  very  uniformly 
at  the  level  indicated  by  geological  survey. 

The  sand  was  struck  unexpectedly  about  six  o'clock  in 
the  evening  about  fifty  feet  above  the  expected  level,  and 
the  rush  of  gas  from  the  well  blew  the  tools  out  of  the  hole 
through  the  crown-block  of  the  derrick,  and  about  four 
hundred  feet  in  the  air,  the  tools  coming  down  within 
twenty  feet  of  the  hole,  and  penetrating  eight  feet  of  soil 
and  three  feet  of  limestone,  twisting  the  stem  in  two  distinct 
cork-screws  from  the  force  of  the  impact.  The  open  flow  ca- 
pacity of  the  well  twelve  hours  later  was  about  thirty  million 
feet  per  day,  and  twenty-six  hours  later  was  thirteen  million 
feet  per  day,  but  subsequent  calculations  show  that  the  first 
flow  could  not  have  been  less  than  seventy-five  million  feet. 

The  interesting  feature  of  this  well  was  not  its  enormous 
flow,  but  the  fact  that  when  closed  in  twenty-six  hours 
afterward  it  made  only  about  fifty  pounds  rock  pressure 
which  gradually  built  up  over  a  period  of  two  weeks  to  the 
original  pressure  of  the  sand  of  about  five  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds.  Careful  calculations  from  an  orifice  meter  installed 
on  the  line  from  this  well,  together  with  a  recording  gauge 
record  of  the  pressures  of  the  well,  show  that  this  well  had 
penetrated  a  cavity  in  the  rocks  of  between  one-half  and 
three-quarter  million  cubic  feet  volume,  with  a  crevice  or 
passage  through  which  gas  feeds  from  the  main  sand  body 
at  the  rate  of  about  two  to  three  million  feet  per  day. 

In  actual  operation  this  well  is  used  as  a  reserv^oir  and 
allowed  to  fill  up  to  the  maximum  pressure  when  the  entire 
contents  of  this  cavity  is  available  and  can  be  used  in  a  few 
hours,  or  a  day,  or  two  days,  as  emergency  requires. 

If  in  constant  use  the  well  would  not  be  worthy  of 
special  note,  but  as  an  emergencv  reser\'oir  from  which  ten 
to  fifteen  million  feet  can  be  taken  in  a  few  hours,  it  is  of 
untold  value  in  the  maintenance  of  good  service  under  trying 
conditions  which  confront  every  gas  company  at  times. 

The  rock  pressure  in  the  field  is  about  550  lb. 

63 


GENERAL 

Altitudes  and  Atmospheric  Pressures  of  Gas  Fields  in 
the  United  States — The  following  table,  from  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  gives  the  altitudes,  together  with 
the  average  atmospheric  pressure,  in  or  near  the  different 
gas  fields  in  the  United  States. 


Ashtabula,  O 

Arkansas  City,  Kas.  . 

Astoria,  Ore 

Alliance,  O 

Bradford,  Pa 

Batavia,  N.  Y 

Baldwinsville,  N.  Y.  . 

Beaumont,  Tex 

Boulder,  Col 

Bakersfield,  Cal 

Bowling  Green,  Ky.. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Birmingham,  Ala 

Charleston,  W.  Va.  .  . 

Chanute,  Kas 

Cincinnati,  O 

Corning,  N.  Y 

Cleveland,  O 

Columbus,  O 

Corsicanna,  Tex 

Claremore,  Okla 

Dallas,  Tex 

Dunkirk,  N.  Y 

Des  Moines,  la 

Erie,  Pa 

Evanston,  Wyo 

Fairmont,  W.  Va 

Fort  Worth,  Tex 

Fort  Scott,  Ark 

Huntington,  W.  Va.. 

Huntsville,  Ala 

Hot  Springs,  Ark 

Henrietta,  Tex 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  .  . 


>d 


1064 
50 

1083 

1464 

895 

390 

26 

5308 
432 
466 
588 
596 
603 
910 
501 
942 
583 
748 
427 
604 
466 
598 
800 
686 

6835 
888 
623 
467 
566 
612 
718 
915 
709 


M  a:  a 
c  w  =^ 

<  H  3 
KB-'-" 


14.33 
14.13 
14.67 
14.12 
13.92 
14.22 
14.49 
14.69 
12.34 
14.47 
14.45 
14.38 
14.38 
14.37 
14.21 
14.43 
14.19 
14.38 
14.30 
14.47 
14.37 
14.45 
14.38 
14.27 
14.33 
11.69 
14.22 
14.36 
14.45 
14.39 
14.37 
14.31 
14.21 
14.32 


Johnstown,  Pa 

Joplin,  Mo 

Kansas  City,  Mo.  .  .  . 

Lexington,  Ky 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. .  .  . 

Laredo,  Tex 

Lima,  O 

Little  Rock,  Ark.  .  .  . 

Muncie,  Ind 

Mobile,  Ala 

Marion,  O 

Muskogee,  Okla 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Parkersburg,  \V.  Va  . 
Port  Huron,  Mich..  . 

Pierre,  S.  D 

Pueblo,  Col 

Robinson,  111 

Red  Bluff,  Cal 

Raton,  N.  M 

Rovstone,  Pa 

vSilver  Creek,  N.  Y.  . 

Shreveport,  La 

San  Antonio,  Tex.  .  . 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 
Santa  Anna,  Cal.  .  .  . 

Tulsa,  Okla 

Texarkana,  Tex 

Trinidad,  Col 

Toledo,  O 

Vincennes,  Ind 

Warren,  Pa 

Wheeling,  W.  Va.  .  .  . 


1= 


1184 

1018 

748 

975 

265 

806 

859 

263 

948 

69 

979 

599 

745 

574 

633 

1438 

4669 

508 

307 

6620 

1465 

623 

198 

683 

4228 

137 

701 

303 

5820 

583 

431 

12C0 

637 


14.07 
14.16 
14.30 
14.17 
14.56 
14.26 
14.24 
14.56 
14.19 
14.66 
14.17 
14.38 
14.30 
14.39 
14.36 
13.93 
12.72 
14.43 
14.53 
11.79 
13.92 
14.36 
14.59 
14.37 
12.73 
14.63 
14.32 
14.54 
12.12 
14.39 
14.47 
14.06 
14.36 


64 


GENERAL 


Temperature  Averages    of  Various   Gas  Fields  and   Cities 
Using  Natural   Gas 


Average 

Average 

Average 

Average 
Humidity 

(%) 

City 

Annual 
Temper- 

Daily 
Minimum 

Daily 
Maximum 

ature 

in  Winter 

in  Summer 

Astoria Ore. 

51 

Abilene    Tex. 

64 

35 

91 

64 

ButTalo N.  Y. 

47 

20 

75 

73 

Birmingham    .    Ala. 

64 

38 

90 

Beaumont  .  .  .    Tex. 

69 

Bakersfield    ...Cal. 

66 

Cumberland  .  .   Md. 

51 

22 

86 

Cleveland Ohio 

49 

22 

77 

73 

Columbus Ohio 

52 

24 

83 

73 

Cincinnati.  .  .  .Ohio 

55 

27 

84 

69 

Corpus  Christi.Tex. 

70 

51 

86 

82 

Charleston.  .W.  Va. 

58 

Chanute   Kan. 

56 

Carlsbad..  N.  Mex. 

63 

Des  Moines.  ...   la. 

49 

14 

83 

72 

Dallas Tex. 

65 

33 

94 

Detroit Mich. 

48 

20 

79 

75 

Erie Pa. 

47 

22 

76 

76 

Fairmont  .  .  .  W.  Va. 

54 

Ft.  Smith    Ark. 

61 

31 

90 

70 

Ft.  Scott Kans. 

56 

Hot  Springs.  .  .Ark. 

62 

Henrietta.  .  .    .Tex. 

63 

Huntington.  \V.  Va. 

54 

Indianapolis. .  .Ind. 

55 

23 

84 

70 

Jamestown.  .  .N.  Y. 

47 

18 

78 

Johnstown Pa. 

51 

Joplin Mo. 

57 

Kansas  City    .  .Mo. 

54 

23 

85 

70 

Lexington....     Ky. 

55 

28 

84 

69 

Laramie   Wyo. 

40 

10 

75 

60 

Los  Angeles.  .  .Cal. 

62 

45 

82 

71 

Louisville     .  .  .  .Ky. 

57 

29 

86 

67 

Little  Rock    ..Ark. 

62 

35 

89 

72 

Lima Ohio 

50 

Marion Ohio 

51 

19 

86 

Mobile    Ala. 

67 

45 

89 

81 

Nashville    .  .  .Tenn. 

59 

32 

87 

71 

Muskogee    ...Okla. 

60 

Pittsburgh Pa. 

53 

25 

83 

72 

Portsmouth.  .    Ohio 

56 

24 

87 

65 


GENERAL 


Temperature  Averages  of  Various  Gas  Fields  and  Cities 
Using  Natural  Gas—Continued 


Average 

Average 

Average 

Average 
Humidity 

(%) 

Annual 

Dailv 

Dailv 

City 

Temper- 

Minimum 

Maximum 

ature 

in  Winter 

in  Winter 

Pueblo    Colo. 

52 

17 

87 

48 

Port  Huron  ..Mich. 

46 

18 

76 

77 

Pierre S.  D. 

47 

10 

85 

64 

Parkersburg.W.  Va. 

54 

26 

84 

76 

Red  Bluff Cal. 

63 

39 

93 

57 

San  Francisco    Cal. 

56 

46 

65 

80 

Shreveport    .  .  .  .La. 

66 

40 

92 

73 

San  Antonio  .  .Tex. 

69 

44 

93 

67 

Toledo Ohio 

50 

21 

79 

74 

Texarkana  .  .  .  .Ark. 

64 

Tulsa Okla. 

60 

Wheeling....  W.Va. 

56 

Warren Pa. 

47 

Wichita Kans. 

56 

24 

88 

68 

Atmospheric  Pressure — The  average  pressure  at  the  sea 
level  is  29.95  inches  of  mercury,  equal  to  14.70  pounds  per 
square  inch.  Under  favorable  conditions  above  the  sea  level 
the  pressure  decreases  as  shown  by  the  following  table. 


Altitude 

Barometric  Pressure 

Above  Sea 

Level. 

Lb.  per  Sq.  In. 

Inches  of  Mercury 

0 

14.70 

29.95 

500 

14.43 

29.40 

1000 

14.17 

28.87 

1500 

13.90 

28.32 

2000 

13.63 

27.77 

2500 

13.37 

27.24 

3000 

13.10 

26.69 

4000 

12.67 

25.81 

5000 

12.20 

24.85 

6000 

11.73 

23.89 

2.0374:  inches  of  mercury  or  27.68  inches  of  water  at  62 
deg.  fahr.  equal  one  pound.  Mercury  is  therefore  13.58 
times  heavier  than  water. 


66 


GENERAL 

In  higher  altitudes  there  is  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  feet  in  elevation  per  inch  of  mercury. 


Table  Showmg  the  Weight  per  1000  Cu.  Ft.  of  Air  and 
Natural  Gas  of  0.6  Specific  Gravity  at  Different  Tem- 
peratures and  at  a  Pressure  of  14.65  Lb.  per  Sq.  In. 
Absolute  Corresponding  to  4  Ounces  Above  14.4  Lb. 
Atmospheric  Pressure. 


Zl 

Weight  in 

Pounds 

W  ei(;ht  in 

Pounds 

—   l-I 

5/^ 

c!   rt 

1000  Cu.  Ft.  of 

Gas  of  0.6 

Sp.  Or. 

ICOO  Cu.  Ft. 
of  Air       ; 

1000  Cu.  Ft.  of 

Gas  of  0.6 

Sp.  Gr. 

1000  Cu. 
Ft.  of  Air 

0 

51.61 

86.05 

110 

41.66 

69.43 

10 

50.52 

84.23 

120 

40.94 

68.23 

20 

49.47 

82.47 

130 

40.25 

67.08 

32 

48.27 

80.45 

140 

39.58 

65.95 

40 

47.49 

79.17 

150 

38.93 

64.88 

50 

46.56 

77.61 

160 

38.30 

63.83 

60 

45.66 

76.11 

170 

37.69 

62.82 

70 

44.80 

74.67 

180 

37.10 

61.84 

80 

43.97 

73.29 

190 

36.53 

60.88 

90 

43.18 

71.96 

200 

35.98 

59.96 

100 

42.40 

70.67 

212 

35.34 

58.89 

67 


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74 


GENERAL 


Record  of  field  activity  and  acreajie  in  the  Appalachian  States  in  1914- 


State 

In  fee        Leased 

Gas 
rights 

Total 

Prod. 

Dec.  31, 

1913 

New  York 

Pennsylvania 

West  Virginia 

Ohio 

11.571  626.717 
179,929  1,577.889 
103.636     2.281.117 

21,385  1.249.532 
5,594  1      160.968 

5.903 

395.301 

706.753 

90.861 

636 

644.218 
2.153,119 
3,091.506 
1.361,778 

167,198 

1.929 

12.438 

6.534 

3.308 

Kentucky 

274 

Total 

322.115  '  5,896,223 

1.119.481 

7.417.819 

26.483 

State 

Drilled  in  1914 

Aband. 
1914 

Prod. 

Dec.  31, 

1914 

Gas 

Dry 

Total 

New  York 

178 
998 
856 
686 
10 

55 
236 

154 
257 

1 

233 
1,234 
1.010 

943 
11 

76 

413 

196 

321 

8 

2.031 

Pennsylvania 

13.023 

West  \'irginia 

7.194 

Ohio 

Kentucky 

5.673 
276 

Total 

2728 

703 

431 

1014 

28.197 

PART    1 AVO 

Properties  of  Gases 

DESCRIPTION  OF  VARIOUS  GASES— THEIR   PROP- 
ERTIES AND  ANALYSES. 

Air — Air  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen, 
with  about  1%  by  volume  of  argon.  At  29.318  barometer 
and  60  deg.  fahr.,  one  cubic  foot  will  weigh  .07483  lb.  and 
1000  cubic  feet  will  weigh  74.83  lb. 

While  the  composition  of  air  varies,  the  following  is 
taken  from  Bulletin  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  Xo.  330. 


By  Volume 

By  Weight 

N.      ^       0. 

Ar 

N.             0. 

Ar 

78.122     20.941 

0.937     - 

—     75 . 539     23 . 024 

1.437 

Air  expands  1/491.2  of  its  volume  at  32  deg.  fahr.  for 
every  increase  of  1  deg.  fahr.,  and  its  volume  varies  inversel}- 
as  the  pressure. 

Hydrogen — Hydrogen  Gas  Ho  is  colorless,  odorless,  non- 
poisonous,  and  the  lightest  substance  known.  Hydrogen  in 
a  commercial  gas  makes  it  lighter,  increases  the  heating 
value,  the  amount  of  air  required  for  combustion,  and  the 
heat  loss  in  the  products  of  combustion.  It  is  ver}^  com- 
bustible, and  uniting  with  oxygen,  burns  with  a  pale  blue, 
nearly  non-luminous  flame,  producing  water  in  the  form  of 
water  vapor.  Hydrogen  is  always  a  desirable  constituent 
on  account  of  its  high  calorific  power  and  its  avidity  for 
combustion.  It  will  not  stand  much  compression  without 
danger  of  self-ignition.  Its  high  heating  value  is  324  B.  t.  u. 
per  cubic  foot  at  60  deg.  fahr.  and  29.33  inches  of  mercury.* 

*This  basis  of  measurement,  60  deg.  fahr.  and  29.33  inches  of  mercury  (14.65 
lb.  absolute)  is  adhered  to  throughout  unless  otherwise  stated. 


PROPERTIES  OF  GASES 

Olefiant  Gas  This  is  sometimes  called  ethylene,  and 
is  the  main  illuminating  constituent  of  coal  gas.  It  has  a 
chemical  formula  of  C2H4.  It  is  evolved  when  oil  or  coal 
is  heated.  It  has  a  very  high  calorific  power,  1578  gross 
B.  t.  u.  per  cubic  foot,  and  possesses  fourteen  times  the 
luminosity  of  marsh  gas.  It  is  colorless,  odorless,  and  burns 
with  a  highly  luminous  flame. 

Methane — In  natural  gas  the  chief  member  of  the  marsh 
gas  series  is  methane  or  marsh  gas  itself,  having  the  formula 
CH4,  and  a  composition  of  25.03%  hydrogen  and  74.97% 
carbon  by  weight.  The  name  marsh  gas  comes  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  frequently  produced  by  the  decay  of  plants  in 
swamps  and  the  bottom  of  rivers.  When  pure  it  is  a  color- 
less, odorless  gas,  lighter  than  air  and  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  .559.  Its  gross  heating  value  is  1003  B.  t.  u.  per 
cubic  foot  at  60  deg.  fahr.  and  29.33  inches  of  mercury  (14.65 
pounds  per  square  inch  absolute.) 

Ethane — Ethane  C2H6,  the  next  member  of  the  marsh 
gas  series,  is  sometimes  found  in  considerable  quantities  in 
natural  gas.  It  greatly  resembles  methane  in  its  general 
properties,  being  a  better  fuel  and  burning  with  a  slightly 
luminous  flame,  which  makes  it  a  better  illuminant  than 
metiiane.    The  heat  value  per  cubic  foot  is  1754  B.  t.  u. 

Ethane  contains  79.96%  of  carbon  and  20.04%  of 
hydrogen  by  weight. 

Carbonic  Oxide — This  is  also  known  as  carbon  mon- 
oxide, CO,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  constituents  of 
producer  gas.  It  is  odorless,  colorless,  practically  insoluble 
in  water,  very  poisonous  and  burns  with  a  distinctive  pale 
blue  flame.  Its  high  or  gross  heating  value  is  322  B.  t.  u. 
per  cu.  ft. 

Carbon  Dioxide — It  is  called  carbonic  acid  and  carbonic 
anhydride,  CO2.  It  is  colorless,  odorless,  soluble  in  water, 
non-combustible,  and  is  formed  by  the  combustion  of  carbon 
and  oxygen  at  high  temperature 

77 


PROPERTIES         OF         GASES 

Oxygen  Oo-^This  is  tasteless,  odorless,  invisible  and 
slightly  heavier  than  air.  It  exists  in  a  free  state  in  the  at- 
mosphere and  in  combination  in  the  ocean.  It  forms  about 
one-fifth  of  the  former  and  eight-ninths  of  the  latter. 

Nitrogen  N2 — This  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  non-com- 
bustible gas  and  is  always  present  in  large  quantity  in 
gases  produced  by  incomplete  combustion.  It  forms  four- 
fifths  of  the  volume  of  air. 

Hydrocarbons — The  number  of  known  hydrocarbons  is 
nearly  two  hundred.  The  term  is  applied  to  all  compounds 
consisting  only  of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  These  compounds 
exist  in  gaseous,  vaporous,  liquid  and  solid  states.  Low 
temperatures  are  conducive  to  the  formation  of  the  easily 
condensed,  tarry  compounds,  while  with  high  temperatures, 
the  yield  of  hydrogen  and  permanent  gases  is  greatly  in- 
creased. 

lUuminants — In  gas  analysis  part  of  the  constituents  are 
sometimes  mentioned  as  illuminants,  the  term  illuminant 
signifying  a  substance  that  makes  the  gas  flame  luminous, 
and  olefiant  gas  is  usually  included  with  this. 

Natural  Gas — The  principal  constituent  is  marsh  gas. 
The  exact  composition  varies  with  the  different  districts. 

Oil  Gas — This  gas  is  made  from  oil,  generally  by  allow- 
ing the  liquid  to  flow  slowly,  and  in  a  thin,  continuous 
stream,  through  a  highly  heated  pipe  or  retort  where  the 
oil  is  vaporized.  This  usually  evolves  hydrogen,  marsh  gas, 
and  olefiant  gas  mixed  with  vapor  which  will  usually  be 
condensed  in  the  scrubbing  apparatus. 

Coal  Gas — It  is  also  called  "bench"  or  "illuminating" 
gas.  The  former  refers  to  the  benches  which  hold  the  retort 
while  the  latter  is  dubious,  since  several  other  gases  are 
distributed  as  illuminating  gas.    Coal  gas  is  made  by  destruc- 

78 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


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79 


PROPERTIES  OF  GASES 

tive  distillation  of  bituminous  coal  in  externally  heated 
air-tight  retorts.  The  resulting  gas  is  withdrawn  by  an 
exhauster   and   the   residual   coke   is   removed  periodically. 

Coke  Oven  Gas — This  is  a  gas  made  in  a  by-product 
coke  oven;  that  is,  the  gas,  tar,  and  ammonia  evolved  by 
distilling  coal  in  a  closed  oven  are  saved  and  used  as  a  b}^- 
product.     Its  composition  is  quite  similar  to  coal  gas. 

Water  Gas — This  is  produced  by  the  decomposition  of 
steam  acting  on  incandescent  carbon.  On  account  of  the 
large  amount  of  carbon  monoxide  present  the  gas  is  very 
poisonous. 

Natural  Gas  Analysis — To  treat  this  subject  fully  would 
require  a  volume  in  itself.  Therefore  we  refer  the  reader  to 
Hempel's  Gas  Analysis,  or  Stone's  Practical  Testing  of  Gas 
and  Gas  Meters. 

In  general  the  analysis  of  gas  consists  in  absorbing  the 
constituents  one  by  one,  in  appropriate  reagents,  and 
measuring  the  decrease  of  volume  caused  by  such  absorption. 

Certain  substances,  such  as  hydrogen  and  methane,  can- 
not readily  be  treated  in  this  manner,  and  these  are  deter- 
mined by  exploding  with  oxygen  and  determining  the 
products  of  the  explosion  or  the  diminution  in  volume  of 
the  original  mixture. 

To  Obtain  Sample  of  Gas — The  sample  tube  commonly 
used  is  a  glass  bulb  1^  inches  in  diameter  and  2%  inches 
long,  with  the  ends  drawn  out  into  capillary  tubes,  and 
terminating  in  two  short  ends  y^-moh  in  diameter.  One  end 
is  connected  to  the  gas  supply  by  means  of  a  piece  of  rubber 
tubing ;  the  gas  is  turned  on,  and  is  lighted  at  the  other  end 
of  the  sample  tube.  If  the  flame  is  not  over  1^  inches  long 
there  will  be  no  danger  of  melting  the  glass,  and  the  bulb 
may  be  purged  of  air  by  continuing  the  combustion  for  a 
reasonable  period.  As  a  rule,  one-half  to  three-quarters  of 
an  hour  will  be  ample.  Great  care  should  be  used  to  close 
the  ends  of  the  glass  bulb  to  prevent  leakage  or  allow  the  air 

80 


PROPERTIES  OF  GASES 

to  mix  with  the  gas  on  the  inside  of  the  tube.  The  safest 
way  to  do  this  is  with  a  blow  pipe  and  a  pair  of  pHers,  melt- 
ing the  ends  of  the  glass  tubes  and  squeezing  them  shut, 
thus  making  a  seal  of  glass. 

In  making  the  seal,  turn  the  gas  partly  off  until  the 
flame  is  about  ^ 4-inch  long;  then,  with  the  blowpipe,  seal 
the  capillary  nearest  the  outlet.  With  the  gas  pressure  still 
on,  seal  the  capillary  at  the  other  end. 

Great  care  should  be  used  in  packing  the  bulb  for  ship- 
ment or  carrying.  The  tube  if  properly  packed  can  be 
shipped  by  express  to  any  laboratory  for  analysis. 

Explosive  Mixture  with  Gas  from  the  Petrolia  (Tex.) 
Field — Oxygen  required  to  create  an  explosive  mixture  with 
natural  gas  from  the  Petrolia  Field.  Tests  made  by  E.  S. 
Merriam,  Ph.  D. 

Assuming  that  the  compositions  of  gas  is  as  given,  the 
quantities  of  oxygen  and  of  air  are  as  shown : 

Constituents.  Oxygen  Required. 

lUuminants  C2H4 0.3  0.9 

Carbonic  Oxide 0.0 

Hydrogen 0.8  0.4 

Marsh  Gas 47.2  94.4 

Ethane 12.5  43.75 

Carbonic  Acid 0.2  0.0 

Oxygen 0.4  0.0 

Nitrogen 38.6  0.0 

100.0  139.45 

One  hundred  volumes  of  this  gas  would  therefore  require 
139.45  volumes  of  pure  oxygen  for  its  complete  combustion. 
There  is  however,  according  to  the  analysis  0.4*^  of  oxygen 
in  the  gas,  subtracting  this  there  remains  139.05  as  the 
necessary  volume  of  oxygen,  and  since  air  contains  20  93% 
of  oxygen,  the  amount  of  air  needed  to  furnish  139  05  volumes 
of  oxygen  will  be  665.  From  the  analytical  figures,  therefore, 
one  volume  of  gas  will  need  about  6.7  volumes  of  air  to  give 
the  most  vigorous  explosion. 

81 


PROPERTIES  OF  GASES 

Candle  Power — A  standard  candle  power  is  the  illumin- 
ation obtained  from  the  flame  of  a  spermaceti  candle  burning 
at  the  rate  of  two  grains  per  minute.  Sixteen  candle  power  is 
the  illumination  given  off  from  sixteen  such  candles.  In 
making  candle  power  tests,  reliance  must  be  placed  on  the 
human  eyesight,  which  is  variable  and  uncertain.  Condi- 
tions of  atmosphere  and  temperature  affect  the  standard 
candle  differently,  so  that  the  tests  vary.  In  judging  the 
quality  of  gas  this  standard  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  by  the 
B.t.  u.  standard,  which  is  a  positive  criterion  of  the  quality 
of  natural  gas.  This  test  for  heat  is  scientific,  mechanical 
and  accurate. 

British  Thermal  Units  (B.  t.  u.)— The  B.  t.  u.  standard 
of  determining  the  quality  of  natural  gas  is  universally 
recognized  by  the  natural  gas  fraternity. 

British  Heat  Unit,  or  British  Thermal  Unit,  indicates 
the  heat  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of 
pyre  water  at  39  deg.  fahr.  through  one  degree. 

There  are  two  methods  employed  to  ascertam  the  B.  t.  u. 
of  any  gas.  One  is  to  use  the  calorimeter,  and  the  other  is  to 
compute  it  from  the  gas  analysis.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  the  B.  t.  u.'s  of  the  different  gases  found 
in  the  analysis.    These  are  given  on  page  87. 

B.  t.  u.'s  figured  from  candle  power  are  valueless. 

There  are  several  calorimeters,  namely,  Hinman-Junker, 
Simmance-Abady,  Sargent,  Doherty,  and  the  Boys.  The 
Hinman-Junker  calorimeter  is  fully  described  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages. 


82 


PRO 


E     R     T     I     E     S 


O     F 


A     S     E     S 


Fig.  3 
THE  HINMAN-JUNKER  CALORIMETER 
Used  in  Determining  the  B.  t    u.  of  Either  Artificial  or  Natural  Gas 


The  Hinman-Junker  Calorimeter — This  apparatus  is  of 
the  same  general  design  and  operates  on  the  same  principle 
as  the  well-known  Junker  Calorimeter,  which  has  heretofore 
been  regarded  by  gas  experts  as  the  most  satisfactory  form 
of  calorimeter  in  use. 

The  complete  apparatus  consists  of  the  one-tenth  foot 
drum  wet  meter,  wet  governor,  calorimeter  with  three  ther- 
mometers, small  graduate,  rubber  tubing,  weighing  balance, 
copper  water  buckets,  or,  in  place  of  the  last  two  items,  a 
large  graduate. 

The  L  TO  drum  meter  is  a  standard  wet  test  meter,  fitted 
with  Hinman  patent  drum,  water-line  gauge  glass,  spirit 
levels,   thumb    screw   feet,    siphon   pressure   gauge   and   the 

83 


PROPERTIES         OF         GASES 

other  customary  fittings.     The  drum  shaft  is  of  German 
silver  and  all  the  sheet  metal  is  tinned  brass. 

The  wet  governor  is  made  of  brass,  nickeled.  It  supplies 
the  calorimeter  with  gas  at  a  perfectly  uniform  pressure.  A 
set  of  weights  is  furnished  with  the  governor. 

The  calorimeter  is  constructed  on  the  same  general  lines 
as  the  Junker.  The  two  water  thermometers,  however,  are 
set  on  the  same  level,  which  is  a  great  convenience  in  operat- 
ing. On  the  outlet  weir  is  a  three-w^ay  cock  which  allows  the 
water  passing  through  the  calorimeter  to  go  either  to  the 
waste  or  to  the  weighing  or  measuring  receptacle.  The 
operation  of  the  three-way  cock  is  as  follows:  The  water 
running  through  the  calorimeter  before  and  after  the  test 
goes  to  the  waste.  At  the  instant  the  meter  hand  comes  to 
zero  the  key  of  the  three-way  cock  is  turned.  When  the 
desired  amount  of  gas  has  passed  through  the  meter  the 
cock  key  is  instantly  turned  back  to  allow  the  water  to  go 
to  the  waste.  There  is  a  vent  tube  on  the  cock  to  allow  all 
the  water  to  drain  out  of  the  tubing  going  to  the  weighing  or 
measuring  receptacle.  By  the  use  of  this  three-way  cock 
the  amount  of  water  used  during  the  test  is  accurately  and 
easily  measured. 

The  exhaust  tube  for  the  products  of  combustion  has  a 
damper,  on  the  axis  of  which  is  a  hand  moving  in  a  graduated 
arch.  By  this  means  the  position  of  the  damper  is  definitely 
known  and  it  can  be  reset  in  subsequent  tests.  The  burner 
is  provided  with  a  baffle  screen  and  a  mirror  for  observing 
the  condition  of  the  flame. 

The  weighing  balance  is  sensitive  to  one-thousandth  of  a 
pound.  It  has  steel  knife  edges  and  agate  bearings.  The 
10  lb.  set  of  brass  weights  consists  of  4  lb.,  2  lb.,  1  lb.,  5/10 
lb.,  2/10  lb.,  and  1/10  lb.  weights.  The  scale  on  the  beam  is 
divided  into  one  hundred  parts,  each  part  representing 
1/1000  of  one  pound. 

84 


PROPERTIES  OF  GASES 

Two  water  buckets  are  furnished.     These  ])uckets  are 
made  of  copper,  tinned  on  the  inside  and 
pohshed  on  the  outside.     Their  capacity  is  r 

about  9  lb.  each.  When  the  bucket  is  placed 
on  the  scales,  they  are  so  arranged  as  to 
balance.  If  it  is  preferred  to  measure  the 
water  a  graduate  of  the  desired  size  can  be  .^  ^ 

furnished.  p^ 

In  accordance  with  recommendations 
made  by  the  Committee  on  Gas  Colori- 
metry  of  the  American  Gas  Institute,  calori- 
meters are  furnished  with  'oafifle  plates 
on  the  burner  to  prevent  downward  radiati- 
on from  the  gas  flame. 

Specific  Gravity — Specific  gravity  is  the 
ratio  between  the  density  of  a  bod>- 
and  the  density  of  some  other  body  chosen 
as  a  standard.  The  specific  gravity  of  solids 
and  liquids  is  given  in  terms  of  water.  In 
this  case  the  specific  gravity  is  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  mass  of  any  volume  of  the  sub- 
stance and  the  mass  of  an  equal  volume  of 
water. 

In  stating  the  specific  gravities  of  gases,    ^'^c^^vrfv^^^ 
air    or    hydrogen    are    generally    taken    as       apparatus 
standards. 

Specific  Gravity  Apparatus — This  is  a  very  simple  and 
convenient  apparatus  for  ascertaining  the  specific  gravity, 
or  density,  of  gases.  It  consists  of  a  glass  jar  with  a  metal  top 
into  which  fits  a  brass  column  having  suspended  from  its  base 
a  long  graduated  glass  tube  and  at  its  top  a  cock  and  a  ground 
joint  socket,  into  which  sets  a  socket  holding  a  small  glass  tip 
closed  in  at  the  top  with  a  very  thin  piece  of  platinum.  In  this 
platinum  is  a  minute  hole  to  permit  the  passage  of  gas  or  air 
at  a  very  slow  rate. 

85 


PROPERTIES         OF         GASES 

The  mode  of  operation  is  as  follows :  The  glass  jar  is  tilled 
with  vvater  to  or  a  little  above  the  top  graduation  of  the  tube. 
The  tube  is  then  withdrawn  so  as  to  hll  it  with  air.  The 
cock  on  the  standard  is  then  closed  and  the  tube  replaced  in 
the  jar.  The  cock  is  then  opened  and  with  a  stop  watch  the 
time  is  taken  that  elapses  while  the  water  passes  from  the 
lowest  graduation  to  the  top  or  the  next  to  the  top  graduation. 

The  tube  is  then  withdrawn  and  filled  with  gas  and  the 
procedure  repeated  the  same  as  with  air,  care  being  taken  to 
use  the  same  graduation  in  both  cases. 

The  specific  gravity,  air  being  one,  is  obtained  by 
dividing  the  gas  time  squared  by  the  air  time  squared. 

Formula  is — 


Specific 
Gravity  a  2 


(f) 


G  =  Time  gas  requires  to  pass  through  orifice. 
A  =  Time  air  requires  to  pass  through  orifice. 

While  boring  out  the  hole  in  the  tip  will  shorten  the 
time  for  each  individual  test  it  wull  also  greatly  increase  the 
liability  of  error  in  the  final  results.  The  longer  time  it 
takes  for  each  test,  the  more  accurate  the  results. 

Heating  Value  and  Specific  Gravity — When  it  is  im- 
possible to  obtain  a  calorimetric  determination  of  the  heating 
value  of  a  particular  gas,  the  next  best  procedure  is  to  com- 
pute it  from  the  chemical  analysis  of  the  gas,  using  the  values 
shown  in  the  following  table  for  the  heating  value  of  the 
constituent  gases. 

Multiply  the  percentage  of  each  gas  present  by  its  corre- 
sponding heating  value  per  cubic  foot,  and  add  the  products. 

The  specific  gravity  is  obtained  in  the  same  manner  from 
the  specific  gravities  and  proportions  of  the  constituent  gases 
shown  by  the  analysis. 

Such  computed  results  are  necessarily  subject  to  what- 
ever errors  there  may  be  in  the  analysis  of  the  gas,  and  unless 
this  has  been  done  with  great  care  and  precision,  a  wide  dis- 


ROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


crcpancy  ma)'  exist  between  the  calculated  and  the  actual 
values.  The  following  B.  t.  u.  values  are  gross  or  high  values, 
and  are  based  on  one  cubic  foot  of  gas  at  60  deg.  fahr.  and 
four  ounce  pressure,  or  14.65  pounds  per  square  inch  absolute. 


Kind  of  Gas 

Symbol 

Gross 

Heating  Value 

B.  t.  u.  per 

Cu.  Ft. 

Specific 
Gravity 

(Air=:l) 

Methane 

Ethane 

Ethylene 

Carbon  monoxide   

Hydrogen 

CH4 
C2H6 
C2H4 
CO 
H2 
H2S 
N2 
CO  2 

He 

02 

1003 

1754 

1578 

322 

324 

668 

0  5529 
1.0368 
0  9676 
0  9671 
0  0692 

Hydrogen  sulphide 

Nitrogen 

Carbon  dioxide 

Helinm  

1 . 1769 
0.9701 
1 . 5195 
0  1382 

Oxygen  

1 . 1052 

Illuminating  Properties  of  Natural  Gas — Natural  gas  in 
connection  with  the  mantle  of  alkaline  earth  f cerium  and 
thorium)  has  produced  the  cheapest  and  best  illuminant. 
Where  natural  gas  can  be  had  at  twenty  five  cents  per 
thousand  cubic  feet  and  fifty  candle  power  can  be  obtained 
from  the  consumption  of  two  and  one-half  cubic  feet  per 
hour  with  a  mantle,  the  cost  of  one  candle  power  per  hour 
is  but  0.00125  of  a  cent. 

In  an  ordinary  argand  burner  with  chimne\',  natural 
gas  will  give  about  twelve  candle  power  with  a  consumption 
of  five  to  six  cubic  feet  per  hour.  If  consumed  in  an  ordinary 
tip,  seven  to  eight  cubic  feet  per  hour  will  yield  six  candle 
power. 

All  natural  gas  has  not  the  same  illuminating  value.  In 
some  districts  it  carries  a  small  percentage  of  heavier  hydro- 
carbons, which  add  much  to  its  illuminating  properties. 

87 


PROPERTIES  OF  GASES 

TESTS     TO     DETERMINE     POISONOUS     GASES     IN 
NATURAL  GAS  FROM  THE  CADDO  (LA.)  FIELD 

In  presenting  the  following  tests  by  Prof.  B-  S.  Merriam 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  results  obtained  do  not 
establish  the  fact  that  all  natural  gas  is  harmless.  The  gas 
used  in  the  tests  was  practically  pure  methane  with  no 
detectable  quantities  of  higher  hydro-carbons. 

TESTS  CONDUCTED  ON  THE  NATURAL  GAS  SUPPLY 

OF  LITTLE  ROCK,  ARKANSAS,  AUGUST 

7th,     1913. 

By  E.  S.  Merriam,  Ph.  D. 

"The  tests  described  below  were  made  w^ith  the  object  of 
ascertaining  whether  the  natural  gas  supplied  to  it's  con- 
sumers, by  the  Little  Rock  Gas  and  Fuel  Company,  con- 
tained any  poisonous  constituents. 

There  is  a  widespread  belief  that  many  varieties  of 
natural  gas  contain  carbon  monoxide.  Work  done  in  the 
Bureau  of  Mines  makes  it  probable  that  carbon  monoxide 
is  never  found  in  natural  gas.  It's  reported  presence  in 
many  analyses  is  due  to  the  use  of  unsuitable  methods  of 
examination. 

Two  tests  for  carbon  monoxide  were  made: — 1st,  when 
blood  is  exposed  to  an  atmosphere  containing  carbon  mon- 
oxide the  gas  is  absorbed  and  a  compound  of  carbon  mon- 
oxide with  the  hemoglobin  of  the  blood  is  formed,  having  a 
pink  or  purplish  color  quite  different  from  the  color  due  to 
oxyhemoglobin.  The  formation  of  this  color  is  one  of  the 
most  positive  and  conclusive  tests  we  have  for  carbon 
monoxide. 

A  dilute  solution  of  steer's  blood  in  water  was  prepared 
(about  1  in  300).  Three  Nessler  tubes  were  filled  with  this 
solution.  On  passing  one  liter  of  the  city  gas  supply  through 
the  blood  solution,  in  one  of  the  tubes,  no  change  in  color 

88 


PROPERTIES  OF  GASES 

was  noted.  In  order  to  show  that  carbon  monoxide,  if  present 
in  the  gas,  could  be  detected  by  this  test,  a  mixture  of  city 
gas  and  carbon  monoxide  was  prepared — 10  cc  of  carbon 
monoxide  w^as  mixed  with  two  hters  of  city  gas  making  a 
O.o^x  mixture.  This  mixture  w^as  bubbled  through  a  Nessler 
tube  containing  blood;  the  color  appeared  after  the  passage 
of  about  a  quarter  of  the  quantity  of  the  mixture. 

The  blood  tube  which  had  been  previously  treated  with 
the  city  gas  alone  and  had  failed  to  give  the  reaction,  gave 
it  very  readily  when  treated  with  the  mixture  of  carbon 
monoxide  and  gas. 

2nd:  A  dilute  solution  of  palladium  nitrate  is  reduced 
by  carbon  monoxide  and  also  by  hydrocarbons  of  the  ethv- 
lene  series,  by  hydrogen  sulphide,  and  by  free  hydrogen. 
The  metal  appears  in  the  form  of  very  line  black  particles 
floating  about  in  the  light  yellow  liquid.  A  thin  smoky 
deposit  of  metal  is  also  formed  on  the  glass  of  the  test  tube 
near  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  These  fine  particles  of  palla- 
dium coalesce  in  a  short  time  and  appear  in  the  bottom  of 
the  test  tube  as  a  black  sediment. 

On  passing  one  liter  of  the  city  gas  through  occ  of  a 
solution  of  palladium  nitrate,  no  change  whatever  could 
be  noticed,  even  on  comparing  the  solution  with  a  blank 
of  5cc  of  the  original  solution.  The  above  described  mix- 
ture of  carbon  monoxide  and  gas  gave  the  reaction  unmis- 
takably. 

The  failure  to  get  a  positive  result  from  the  city  gas 
with  this  solution  not  only  excludes  carbon  monoxide,  but 
also  eliminates  free  hydrogen,  hydrocarbons  of  the  ethylene 
series,  and  hydrogen  sulphide. 

A  special  test  for  hydrogen  sulphide  was  further  made 
by  passing  two  liters  of  city  gas  through  a  U  tube  containing 
granular  lead  acetate.  No  sign  of  blackening  could  be 
detected.  This  is  an  extremely  delicate  test  and  minute 
traces  would  have  made  themselves  evident. 

89 


PROPERTIES         OF         GASES 

Absorption  experiments  using  bromine  water  and 
ammoniacal  cuprous  chloride  in  the  ordinary  Hempel  form 
of  apparatus  failed  to  show  any  carbon  monoxide  or  ethylene 
hydrocarbons.  This  method  was  employed  because  these  are 
the  customary  reagents  used  in  technical  gas  analysis,  altho 
the  tests  by  blood  and  palladium  salts  are  far  more  decisive. 

As  a  further  test  of  a  different  sort,  a  canary  bird  was 
placed  in  a  pasteboard  box  of  the  following  dimensions: — 
17  X  23  X  24  inches;  the  capacity  of  the  box  was  therefore 
154  litres.  Holes  were  bored  for  the  admission  of  gas  and 
provision  was  made  for  obtaining  a  sample  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, within  the  box.  A  glass  plate  which  could  be  pasted 
on  was  provided  so  that  the  bird  could  be  obser\^ed.  After 
introducing  the  cage  with  the  bird  and  closing  the  glass  door, 
forty  litres  of  gas  were  introduced  into  the  box.  This  would 
give  an  atmosphere  within  the  box  containing  at  the  start 
about  35%  of  gas.  The  glass  door  was  then  pasted  down 
air-tight,  and  the  box  was  left  undisturbed  for  one  hour  and 
six  minutes.  During  this  period  the  bird  showed  no  signs  of 
distress  and  was  apparently  as  well  as  ever  at  the  close  of 
the  test.  At  the  end  of  the  test  a  sample  of  the  atmosphere 
within  the  box  was  obtained  and  showed  the  following 
result  on  analysis: — 92.05  cc  were  taken  and  after  treatment 
with  KOH  lost  0.2  cc.  This  represents  1.22%  of  carbon 
dioxide  mostly  formed  by  the  bird's  breathing.  After  re- 
moval of  oxygen  by  alkaline  pyrogallic  acid  there  remained 
74.15  cc.  From  these  figures  the  percentage  of  air  in  the 
box  is  calculated  to  be  93.1,  or  the  atmosphere  of  the  box 
contained  6.9%  of  gas.  A  confirmatory  and  more  accurate 
result  obtained  by  combustion  showed  7.35%  of  gas. 

In  order  to  determine  the  nature  and  amount  of  the 
combustible  constituents  of  the  gas  it  was  burned  in  a  form 
of  apparatus  devised  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines.  The  gas  was 
handled  over  mercury  and  burned  with  pure  oxygen,  by  the 
use  of  a  hot  spiral  of  platinum  wire.     The  percentage  of 

90 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


carbon  dioxide,  originally  present  in  the  gas,  was  previously 
determined  and  its  presence  allowed  for  in  the  calculations. 
The  volume  of  carbon  dioxide  and  the  contraction,  due  to 
burning,  were  corrected  for  deviation  from  the  true  gas  laws. 
The  measuring  burette  had  been  previously  calibrated  and 
was  provided  with  a  compensating  device  to  avoid  errors 
due  to  changing  temperature  and  pressure. 

Below  are  the  results  of  combustions : — 


Oxygen 
taken 

Gas 
taken 

Volume 

after 
Burning 

Volume 
after 
KOH 

Corrected 
volume  of 

CO  2 

Corrected 

value  of 

Contraction 

Empirical 

formula  of 

hydrocarbons 

present 

97.35 

42.85 

55.8 

13.4 

41.95 

84.3      CH4.03 

The  gas  is  therefore  almost  wholly  methane  with  a 
small  amount  of  nitrogen  and  carbon  dioxide.  The  gas  can 
act  physiologically  only  by  diluting  the  atmospheric  oxygen 
present. 

Summarizing  the  above  results  we  have : — 

%  Methane 97.8 

%  Carbon  Dioxide 1 .  25 

%  Nitrogen 0.95 

%  Carbon  Monoxide 0 .  00 

%  defines 0.00 

%  Hydrogen 0.00 

%  Hydrogen  Sulphide 0.00 


100. 00 


91 


PROPERTIES         OF         GASES 

PHYSIOLOGICAL  TEST  OF  THE  NATURAL  GAS  FROM 
CADDO    (LA.)    FIELD,   AUGUST,    1913 

By  E.  S.  Merriam,  Ph.  D. 

**A  chemical  analysis  performed  August  7th,  having 
shown  the  natural  gas  supply  of  Little  Rock  to  consist  almost 
wholly  of  methane,  it  was  believed  that  a  physiological  test 
would  furnish  further  and  conclusive  evidence  that  the  gas 
does  not  possess  toxic  qualities. 

Mr.  B.  J.  Gifford  consented  to  the  use  of  the  kitchen 
of  his  house  at  2605  State  Street  for  the  test.  This  room 
measured  16  feet  in  length,  12  feet  in  width  and  11  feet  in 
height;  its  total  capacity,  therefore,  was  2,112  cubic  feet. 
The  gas  pipes  were  disconnected  at  the  stove  and  hot  water 
heater,  in  order  to  allow  a  free  flow  of  gas  into  the  room. 
Mr.  W.  F.  Booth,  Mr.  B.  J.  Gifford  and  Prof.  E-  S  Merriam 
remained  in  the  room  during  the  entire  period  of  the  test. 
Dr.  J.  H.  Kinsworthy  was  admitted  when  the  test  had  been 
under  way  for  31  minutes  and  he  remained  until  the  end. 

A  meter  in  the  basement  of  the  house  aUowed  the  total 
quantity  of  gas  admitted  to  the  room  to  be  measured.  The 
windows  and  doors  of  the  room  were  tightened  somewhat 
by  stopping  the  cracks  with  newspaper.  Prof.  Merriam 
determined  the  percentage  of  oxygen  in  the  air  of  the  room 
at  the  beginning  of  the  test,  and  at  frequent  interv^als  during 
the  test;  so  that  a  close  record  of  the  amount  of  gas  in  the 
atmosphere  of  the  room  could  be  obtained  at  any  moment. 

The  test  was  begun  at  2  :o5  P.M.,  Mr.  Booth,  Mr.  Gifford 
and  Mr.  Merriam  being  then  in  the  room.  The  initial  read- 
ing of  the  gas  meter  was  6300.  At  3:31,  the  gas  supply  was 
turned  off  and  the  final  reading  of  the  meter  was  6750, 
showing  that  450  cubic  feet  of  gas  had  entered  the  room 
during  this  interval  of  36  minutes.  The  gas,  therefore,  came 
in  at  the  rate  of  12.5  cubic  feet  per  minute.  At  3:26,  Dr. 
Kinsworthy  was  admitted  to  the  room,  5  minutes  before  the 
gas  supply  was  shut  off.     At  3 :38  a  bottle  was  filled  with 

92 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


water,  the  water  poured  out  and  the  bottle  tightly  corked. 
In  this  way  a  sample  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  room  at  that 
moment,  was  secured.  It  was  tested  later.  At  3 :54  P.  M.,  or 
59  minutes  after  the  start  of  the  test,  a  second  sample  of  the 
atmosphere  of  the  room  was  obtained.  At  4:00  P.  M.,  the 
test  was  brought  to  a  close  by  opening  the  doors  and  windows. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  day  was  uncomfortably 
warm,  none  of  the  persons  undergoing  the  test  felt  the 
slightest  discomfort;  there  was  no  headache,  nausea,  dizzi- 
ness, nor  any  of  the  usual  symptoms  of  gas  poisoning,  ex- 
perienced by  any  of  the  four  men,  either  during  or  after  the 
test. 

Below  are  recorded  the  observations  made  during  the 
test: 


Time 
P.M. 

Percent, 
of  Oxygen 

Percent, 
of  Air 

Percent, 
of  Gas 

Remarks 

2:55 
3:00 

20.6 
20.1 
19.6 
18.7 
17.9 

18^4 

18.8 
19.0 
19.05 

100.0 
97.6 
95.2 
90.8 
86.9 

89'3 

91.25 
92.25 
94.6 

0.0 

2.4 

4.8 

9.2 

13.1 

10'7 

8.75 
7.75 
5.4 

Start  of  test. 

3:05 

3:15 

3:26 

3:31 
3:35 

Dr.   Kingsworthy 

entered. 
Gas  turned  off. 

3:38 
3:41 

First  sample  of  at- 
mosphere taken. 

3:49 

3:54 
4:00 

Second    sample    of 
atmosphere 
taken. 

End  of  test. 

The  sample  of  atmosphere  obtained  at  3:38  was  tested 
by  withdrawing  the  cork  and  applying  a  match.  The  gas 
ignited  and  burned  quietly,  flaring  back  into  the  bottle.  The 
sample  collected  at  the  end  of  the  test  was  tested  in  the  same 
way,  but  did  not  burn  or  explode.  This  result  was  expected, 
as  the  Bureau  of  Mines  has  foimd  that  a  mixture  of  air  and 

93 


PROPERTIES         OF         GASES 

methane  must  contain  5.5%  of  methane  to  be  explosive. 
The  sample  collected  at  3:54  contained,  according  to  the 
analysis,  only  5.4%  of  natural  gas,  or  methane,  and  could 
not,  therefore,  be  expected  to  explode. 

From  the  analytical  results  it  is  evident  that  from  about 
3:10  to  3:50  there  was  gas  enough  in  the  atmosphere  of  the 
room  to  form  an  explosive  mixture. 

Two  other  important  points  are  to  be  noted  from  the 
analytical  figures. 

First,  the  rate  of  escape  of  gas  from  the  room  after  the 
supply  was  shut  off  is  quite  rapid,  the  percentage  of  gas 
falling  from  13.1  to  5.4  in  28  minutes.  This  was  in  a  room 
where  all  the  doors  and  windows  were  closed  and  the  cracks 
stopped  up.  In  an  ordinars^  room  it  seems  extremely  un- 
likely that  sufficient  gas  could  accumulate  to  reduce  the 
oxygen  percentage  to  a  dangerous  degree. 

Second,  the  gas  was  introduced  into  the  room  at  the 
rate  of  12.5  cubic  feet  per  minute;  the  room  was  of  an  average 
size,  but  the  percentage  of  oxygen  was  reduced  to  only  17.9; 
even  with  all  the  burners  of  a  stove  turned  on  full  and  all  gas 
jets  open,  gas  could  not  be  introduced  at  a  higher  rate  than 
two  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

This  test  shows,  therefore,  that  no  ill  effects  whatever 
can  be  attributed  to  an  atmosphere  containing  unburned 
Little  Rock  Natural  Gas.  Four  men  obserA'ed  no  effect 
whatever  from  breathing  an  atmosphere  containing  far  more 
gas  than  is  ever  likely  to  result  from  accidental  causes." 

HEAT    FACTS 
By  Albert  A.  Summerville,  Ph.  D. 

"Heat  travels  at  the  same  speed  as  light,  namely,  186,000 
miles  per  second.  It  travels  in  straight  lines  and  may  pass 
through  a  medium  without  heating  it.  This  is  proven  by  the 
fact  that  although  the  sun  heats  by  radiation,  the  upper 
layers  of  air  are  always  cold. 

94 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


Steam  or  hot  water  radiators  will  give  off  more  radiant 
heat  in  proportion  to  the  pohsh  of  their  surfaces.  In  other 
words  a  silvered  or  gilded  radiator  will  give  off  less  heat 
than  a  dull  black  surfaced  one. 

The  thermos  bottle  keeps  its  contents  at  nearly  the  same 
temperature  as  when  placed  in  the  bottle  because  of  the  lack 
of  radiation.  In  addition  to  a  vacuum  chamber  surrounding 
the  bottle,  which  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  the  outside  is 
silvered,  further  preventing  radiation. 

A  rug  feels  warmer  than  a  tiled  floor,  because  the  rug 
is  a  poorer  conductor  of  heat." 

Radiation  of  Heat — Radiation  of  heat  takes  place  be- 
tween bodies  at  all  distances  apart,  and  follows  the  law  for 
radiation  of  light. 

Heat  rays  proceed  in  straight  lines  and  the  intensity 
of  the  rays  radiated  from  any  one  source  varies  inversely 
as  the  square  of  their  distance  Jrom  the  source. 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


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PROPERTIES 


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98 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


S     E      S 


o  ^ 


X 

, 

>-.  ^ 

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s> 


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lO  CO 


ou 


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5    l-i    3 


cd:x 


U'J:: 


id 

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00 


is 


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<    c     • 


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<         : 
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99 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


d 

Ci 

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'J: 

id 

Ci 
.— 1 

r-H 

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5 

^1 

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»-  o 

>  u 

< 

5    fli! 

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r-H 

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p 

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^  u3Soj;t|v[ 

lO                     00        lO 
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i-H 

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lO 

^ 

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1— 1            r— ( 

CD 

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100 


R     O 


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t—i  00 

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IS 


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US 


So  p  U 


X      <  _2 


101 


PROPERTIES         OF  GASES 

Analysis  of  Gas  taken  at  different  times  from  the  city  mains 
at  Taft,  California.  First  analysis  is  from  so-called  dry 
gas  or  from  wells  that  produce  gas  only. 

Carbon  dioxide .60  3.50 

Illuminants 20  .45 

Oxygen 20  .15 

Methane 92.05  93.43 

Ethane 3.15  1.15 

Nitrogen 3.80  1.32 

100.00  100.00 

Specific  gravity 58.08  60.21 

Gross  B.  t.  11.,  at  (30  fahr.,  29.92" 1021  1098 

Net                "                               "          927  1018 

Following  is  an  analysis  of  wet  gas,  or  gas  produced  in  connec- 
tion with  oil: 

Carbon  dioxide 8.2 

Illuminants 2.0 

Oxygen 0.3 

Carbon  monoxide 1.1 

Methane 76.1 

Ethane 12.3 

Nitrogen 0.0 

100.0 

Specific  gravit}' 74.6 

Gross  B.  t.  u 1084 


102 


R     O     P     E     R     T     I 


O     F 


GASES 


7: 

000 
000 

88    8 

8 

8  1 

H 

s     s     I 

88    8    88 

OJ 

0  ^3 

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CM       ; 

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w 
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05                (M                CO 

CM  10        i>        id  l> 

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al^S-^Go>-'r-^=    1 

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103 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


^ — ^ 

6~ 

■^i 

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1 

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t- 

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0            ; 

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104 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


u 

1    dJ 

Oi 

CO 
CO 

^ 

8 

r-     '^ 

OS    3 

CO 

(M 

CO 

d 

§ 

.=  js 

pq  a- 

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a> 

a=2    o 

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00 
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f-K 

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O   3 

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0 

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CA) 

a 

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CM 

CO 
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0 

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0 

8 

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0 

C5 

CM 

8 

CJ 

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o 

0     ,    cr.   flj   C3 
Uh   vL   ^  ^   W) 

t/^  rj  a-'  3  <3J 

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00 

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8 
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105 


PROPERTIES 


O     F 


GASES 


GASES  FROM  VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 

Fumarole;  Gases  from  Iceland.     {By  Bunsen) 


1 

2                          3 

Name  of  Gas 

Fumaroles          '         Fumaroles 

from    great   Hecla  from   lava   stream 

crater              '            of  1845 

Nitrogen 

Oxygen 

81.81 
14.21 
,  2.44 
i  0.00 
f  1.54 
1  0.00 
■  0.00 
Undete 

82.58                   78.90 
16  86                   20  09 

Carbon  dioxide 

Hydrogen  sulphide. 

0.56                      1.01 
0.00                     0  00 

Sulphur  dioxide 

Carbon  monoxide 

Hydrocarbons 

Hydrochloric  acid 

0.00                     0.00 
0.00                     0.00 
0.00                     0  00 
rmined 

100.00 

ICO.CO                 100.00 

GASES  FROM  CLEFTS  IN  LAVA  OF  VESUVIUS 


Name  of  Gas 


3a 


Sulphur  dioxide. 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen 


0.64 
20.00 
78.36 


99.00 


20.70 
79.30 


0.03 
20.50 
79.47 


100.00 


100.00 


0.07 
20.77 
79.16 


100 . 00 


Fig.  7 
106 


I'AUT   TIIIUOE 

Field  Work 

AVERY  COMPLETE  vSECTlON  DEALING  IX  DETAIL 
WITH  EVERY  PHASE  OF  LEAvSE,  DERRICK, 
DRILLING,  vSHOOTiNG  AND  CARE  OF  GAvS 
WELLvS. 

Lease — Almost  the  entire 
amount  of  gas  and  oil  pro- 
duced in  the  world  is  ob- 
tained from  leased  lands. 
The  lease,  therefore,  which 
embodies  in  legal  form  the 
consideration,  penalties  and 
agreements  between  the  land 
owner  and  the  operator,  is 
of  fundamental  importance, 
and  should  be  a  matter 
of  record  in  the  Recorder's 
office  of  the  county  in  which 
the  property  is  located. 
Leases  of  property  owned  or 
controlled  by  the  Indians 
are  under  Federal  super- 
vision through  the  Depart- 
ment of  Interior. 

A  lease  may  be  obtained 

on   a   straight  yearly  rental 

basis,  or,  more  commonly,  on  a  basis  of  a  specified  amount 

for  each  gas  well  drilled  in  which  gas  in  paying  quantities  is 

found.    Likevvise  in  event  of  finding  oil  in  paying  quantities 

107 


Fig.  A'— .4    BURNING    GAS     WELL 
IN  CIMARRON  RIVER   BED 

Cushini-  Field  {Okla.) 


I 


FIELD      WORK 


In  Constberation  of  o,.  do.uu  .o  .c  .n  hand 

-A_-  ^(r'>^Pt^t/^3-'   the  rccei|il  of  whicli  is  acknowledged,  and  of  the  benelits  that  may  accrue  to  me  as  hereinafter  suted 


.  of  the  Town  of 


pa,d  \>,^n^(^^^d^^.)^^^^ 
ay  accrue 


County,   New  York. 


do  hereby  give,  grant  and  (^mse  to  said  first  party,  for  and  during  the  term  of  ten  years  ffom  date,  and  as  much  longer  as  gas  or 
oil  shall  be  found  in  p.mn^'tjii.-intities.  or  as  the  rental  IS  paid  thereon,  the  exclusive  rigiit^license  and  privilege  of  drilling  and 
sinking  wells  for  oil  or  gas.  and  taking  and  removing  said  product  therefrom,  the  right  to  dig  and  use  water  wells  therefor,  the  ex- 
t.i.ive  right  to  lay  pipes  and  mains  ^nd  to  conduct  said  product  through  the  same  and  a  right  of  way  for  thr-  purpose  hereof. 
ii|^in.  III.  throuu'li,  and  over  the  following  described  |)j^mj^s  y  ^ 

All  that  tract  of  land  situate  in  the  town  of        C>'^^C<'P^^''^rrr. County  of z'^r'^^'fSr^...^ 

Nirn  York,  described  and  liouiid^d  as  follows,  to  wa 

i^^^^'A^^'^&ra^ _ 


South  bv  lands  ol 


Cast  l.v  lands  of 


lA'e.it  b\  lands  ol 


l^onlaining Z^/... ^. acres  of  land.inort  or  less,  upon  the  following  terms  and  conditions:  _. 

First: — That  if,  within  ISie  years  from  date,  a  well  has  not  been  drilledon  s^id  prei\iiscs,  said  lessee  shall  pay  me  ^<^....T!^^^ 
1  lollars  per  annum  thcre.iftcr  uiilil  iiuik  1 1  cu i.Lid.  ,  ^^3»^«^(X>!?>^^?-til.<«<»'t-C-<.^__^ 

.Second:—  That,  in  case  gas  in  payini;  quanritics  is  foimd.  stlid  lessee  shall  pay  me  for  wells  producing  <)*e   M    cubic   feet   pei 
ila>.or  more,  ^ibo  (leriinjuim. 
into  the  giaini 


I  propoBioiv  Spr  e.K-h  h  ell  so  long  as  it  is  opperate4  by  retpovin;;   ga 


Ihird:  -TH.4T  IF  Of  I.  IS  FOVSD.  I  AM  Tp  HA  V^  O^  EIGHTH  OE  THE  PkOPUCTlOX  DBUJC^RBP  hREE  Oi^HARGE  ''VTO^ 

groui\Jf-  —T^fLx.  in  the  locating  of  a  wttl-on  said  premises  I  amMTI  be  consulted  a^Tto  its  location. 


^ 


;( said  premi.ses  for  drillint:  shall  be  paid    for    al    th^   rale    ^^J-jy- ly   acrefor,    jf 


Fifth:— That  no  well  shall  be  drilled  witljin  two  hundred  feet  of  a  house  or  barn,  or  in  any  orchard,  on  said  premises,  with 
out  my  consent 

Sixth: — That  all  crops  damaged  by  entering! 
tlie  amount  actinlly  darr^aged  or  destro)ed. 

Seventh: -That  saitflessee  may  at  any  tirije  remove  all  casings,  pipe  and  property  put  upon  and  used  on  above  described 
liremises. 

The  grants  and  conditions  hereof  shall  bind  the  parties  hereto,  their  heirs,  nxecntors,  administrators  and  assigns-  Failure 
of  the  lessee  to  comply  with  the  conditions  hereof  or  to  make  the  payments  specified,  will  render  this  lea.sc  null  and  void  and  not 
binding  upon  either  party;  and  said  lessee  may,  by  surrendering  this  lease,  terminate  it  at  any  time  and  thereby  cancel  all  obli- 
gations, hereunder,  either  expressed  or  implied 


WITNESS  m)  hand  and  seal  this  ^.'day  o 


CX/  /^-trp^^^-^-*^^ 


Fig.  9— FORM  OF  GAS  LEASE 

108 


FIELD      WORK 

the  land  owner  generally  receives  a  royalty  of  one  eighth  or 
one  sixteenth  of  the  total  amount  of  oil  produced  from  the 
property  during  the  life  of  the  wells. 

In  the  lease  the  operator  is  generally  given  the  exclusive 
right  to  drill  for  oil  or  gas,  and  a  right  of  way  for  pipe  line 
across  the  land. 

Some  leases  stipulate  that  the  farmer  or  land  owner  is  to 
receive  free  gas  for  house  use  on  the  lease,  but  it  is  better  that 
the  operator  install  a  domestic  meter  and  require  the  land- 
owner to  pay  a  reasonable  price  for  the  gas  above  a  certain 
amount  per  month  or  per  year.  Leases  granting  free  gas  to 
the  landowner  have  fallen  into  disfavor  owing  to  the  many 
abuses  of  the  privilege  and  it  is  now  the  common  custom  to 
exclude  the  clause  granting  free  gas  privileges. 

Well  Contract — The  well  contract  is  an  agreement 
between  the  operator  and  the  drilling  contractor. 

The  contract  is  generally  based  on  a  certain  price  per 
foot  of  completed  hole.  In  some  cases  the  operator  furnishes 
gas  for  fuel,  in  which  case  the  contract  should  stipulate  that 
the  drilling  contractor  must  use  a  boiler  regulator  to  prevent 
extravagant  waste  of  gas. 

Well  Location — In  locating  a  well,  consideration  should 
be  given  to  the  w-ater  supply  for  the  boiler,  and  to  placing 
the  boiler  on  the  windw^ard  side  of  the  derrick  with  reference 
to  prevailing  winds.  In  anticipating  a  large  gasser,  just 
prior  to  drilling  in,  the  boiler  should  be  moved  to  a  safe 
distance. 

Derrick  or  Rig — There  is  a  great  variety  of  gas  well 
drilling  derricks  or  rigs,  but  all  of  them  can  be  placed  in  two 
classes — standard  and  portable.  Under  the  standard  are 
the  bolted  steel  or  wood  and  the  nailed  derrick.  Steel 
derricks  are  not  commonly  used  on  account  of  their  weight 
in  moving  and  the  difficulty  of  replacing  new  parts  at  distant 

109 


FIELD      WORK 

points  in  the  field.  The  bolted  derrick  (wooden)  is  more 
expensive  in  the  beginning  but  there  is  less  waste  in  tearing 
down  and  putting  up.  A  bolted  wooden  derrick  should  be 
painted  and  the  bolts  kept  well  oiled.  The  nailed  derrick 
is  the  same  style  as  the  wooden  bolted  derrick  except  that 
the  legs,  girts  and  braces  are  spiked  together  in  erecting. 


Fig.  10— CLOSED  RIG 

The  lower  part  oj  the  derrick  is  enclosed  to  protect  the  machinery  and  work- 
men from  cold  or  stormy  'feather. 


The  average  cost  of  tearing  down  and  erecting  a  wooden 
derrick  by  a  rig  builder  is  $75.00  without  the  hauling.  A 
portable  derrick  has  been  used  to  drill  a  well  3000  feet  deep 
but  they  are  most  commonly  used  in  drilling  wells  less  than 
1000  feet  deep.  The  height  of  a  standard  derrick  is  from  74 
feet  to  84  feet. 

110 


FIELD       WORK 


Fig.ll—STLEL  DERKIlK 


111 


FIELD      WORK 


DERRICK  AND   DRILLING   OUTFIT 


1  Nose  Sill 

2  Mud  Sills 

3  Mud  Sills 

4  Main  Sill 

5  Sub  Sill 

6  Sand  Reel  Sill 

7  Bumper,    Engine 
Block  to  Main  Sill 

8  Engine  Block 

9  Engine  Mud  Sills 

10  Derrick  Mud  Sills 

11  Derrick  Floor  Sills 

12  Foundation  Posts 

13  Bull  Wheel  Posts 

14  Bull  Wheel  vShaft 

15  Bull  Wheel,Brake  Side 

16  Bull  Wheel,  Tug  Side 

17  Calf  Wheel  Posts 

18  Calf  Wheel  Shaft 

19  Calf  Wheel 

20  Skeleton  Rim  for  Calf 
Wheel 

21  Sand  Reel  Reach 

22  Band  Wheel  Shaft 

23  Iron    Tug    Wheel    for 
Calf  Wheel 

24  Back  Jack  Post  Box 

25  Tug  Pulley 

26  Band  Wheel 

27  Front  Jack  Post  Box 
and  Cap 

28  Shaft,     Crank,    Wrist 
Pin  and  Flanges 

29  Iron  Sand  Reel 

30  Sand  Reel  Posts 

31  Jack  Post 

32  Pitman 

33  Sand  Reel  Lever 

34  Sampson  Post 

35  Sampson  Post  Braces 

36  Derrick  Crane  Post 

37  Headache  Post 

38  Walking  Beam 

39  Jack  Post  Brace 

40  Derrick  Ladder 

41  Derrick  Cornice 

42  Derrick  Girts 

43  Derrick  Braces 

44  Bull  Wheel  Cants 

45  Bull  Wheel  Arms 


9 

Fig.  12 


112 


FIELD      WORK 


WITH  ALL  PARTS  NUMBERED 


46  Calf  Wheel  Cants 

47  Calf  Wheel  Arms 

48  Belt 

49  Adjuster  Board 

50  Derrick  Floor 

51  Bull  Wheel  Post  Brace 

52  Crown  Pulley 

53  Sand  Pirnip  Pulley 

54  Casing  Pulley 

55  Sand  Line 

56  Drilling  Cable 

57  Casing  Line 

58  Bull  Rope 

59  Calf  Rope 

60  Temper  Screw  Eleva- 
tor Rope 

61  Temper  Screw  Pulleys 

62  Center  Irons 

63  Stirrup 

64  Calf  Wheel  Gudgeons 
(not  Visible) 

65  Bull  Wheel  Gudgeons 
(not  Visible) 

66  Brake  Band   for 
W^heel 

67  Brake  Lever  for 
Wheel 

68  Brake  Staple  for 
Wheel 

69  Sand  Reel  Hand  Lever 

70  Brake    Lever    and 
Staple  for  Calf  Wheel 

71  Brake  Band  for  Calf 
W^heel 

72  Telegraph  Wheel 


73  Derrick  Crane  with 
Chain  Hoist  and 
Swivel  Wrench 

75  Crown  Block 

76  Temper  Screw 

77  Rope  Socket 

78  Jars 

79  Stem 

80  Bit 

81  Bailer  or  Sand 
Pump 


Fig.  IS — {Continued) 
NOTE:  Boiler  and  engine  are  not  sho-a-n  on  this  diagrai 

113 


FIELD      WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS     OF     MATERIAL     REQUIRED 
BUILD   A   COMPLETE   DOUBLE-TUG 
STANDARD  RIG. 

NUMBERS    REFER   TO  DRAWING    ON    PAGES    112   AND    113 

Derrick  80  Feet  High 


TO 


No.  in 
Diagram 


No.  of 
Pieces 


Name  of  Part 
Timbers:   Oak,  Beech 
Maple 


Size  in 
Inches 


Length 
in  Feet 


4 
2 
3 

1 
5 
9 

8 

6 

10-11 

7 


34 
31 
39 
35 
37 
13 
51 
17 
30 
38 

75 
27 
30 
33 
32 
75 


69 
14 

18 


Main  Sill 

Mud  Sills 

Mud  Sills 

Nose  Sill 

Sub  Sill 

Engine  Mud  Sills 

Engine  Pony  Sills 

Engine  Blocks 

Sand  Reel  Sill 

Derrick  Sills 

Bumper  (engine  to  mudsills) 

Derrick  Blocking 

Dump  Block 

Sampson  Post 

Jack  Post 

Jack  Post  Braces 

Sampson  Post  Braces 

Headache  Post 

Bull  Wheel  Posts 

Bull  Wheel  Posts  Brace 

Calf  Wheel  Post 

Sand  Reel  Post 

Walking  Beam 

Keys 

Crown  Block 

Jack  Post  Cap 

Knuckle  Post 

Sand  Reel  Lever 

Pitman  Tapered 

Sand  Pulley  Block 

Bull  Wheel  Spools 

Bull  Wheel  Spools 

Sand  Reel  Handle 

Octagon  Bull  Wheel  Shaft   . 
Octagon    Calf  Wheel    vShaft| 


18x18 

16x16 

16x16 

16x16 

16x16 

16x16 

12x14 

8x20 

12x14 

9x10 

6x  8 

16x16 

12x12 

16x16 

16x16 

6x  8 

6x  8 

6x  8 

12x14 

6x  8 

12x14 

12x14 

14x24 

3x  5 

5x14 

5x14 

5x14 

9x11 

5x5-5x12 

2x12 

2x  6 

2x  4 

2x  8 

f 18x18' 

16x16 

18x18 

\16xl6 


32 
16 
20 

8 
18 
14 
12 
10 
12 
21 
24 
16 

8 
16 
12 
16 
14 
16 
10 
14 
10 

6 
26 
16 
14 


10 
12 
20 
20 
16 
8 

14 


114 


FIELD       WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS     DOUBLE-TUG  RIG     iCoutiuucd) 


No.  in 

No.  of 

Name  of  Part 

Size  in 

Length • 

Diagram 

Pieces 

Pine  or  Hemlock 

Inches 

in  Feet 

41 

30 

Derrick  Legs,  etc 

•  2x  8 

16 

41 

22 

Derrick  Legs,  etc 

2x10 

16 

6 
6 

Doublers 

2x10 
2x  8 

20 

Starting  Legs 

18 

42 

4 
4 

8 
14 

First  Girts.. 

2x12 
2x10 
2x  6 
2x6 

18 

42 

Second  Girts. . . . 

18 

43 

First  Braces 

20 

43 

Second  Braces,  etc 

18 

30 

Floor  and  Walk 

2x12 

20 

40 

20 

Ladders  and  Stringers 

2x  4 

16 

8 

Engine  Honse  Stringer 

2x  4 

12 

26 

72 

Band  Wheel  and  Girts 

1x12 

16 

43 

60 

Braces 

Ix  6 

16 

4000  Feet  Boards 

1 

16 

1000  Feet  Boards 

1 

14 

28 

If  Rig  is  to  be  Full  Doubled 

2x  8 

16 

12 

If    Rig    is    to    be    Doubled 

Front  and  Rear  only 

2x  8 

16 

Outfit  of  Rig  and  Calf  Irons,  as  follow: 


FOUNDRY  IRONS 


Diagram 
No. 


28     1  vShaft.  Crank,  Wrist  Pin 

and  Collar. 
28     1  Pair  Flanges  with  Keys 

and  Bolts. 

62  1  Set  Center  Irons  with 
Bolts. 

52  1  Crown  Pulley. 

53  1  Sand  Line  Pulley. 

63  1  Walking  Beam  Stirrup. 

65  1  Pair  Bull  Wheel  Gud- 
geons with  Bands  and 
Bolts. 


Diagram 
No. 


24 
20 

23 

64 


64 


54 


1  Jack  Post  Box. 

1  90-inch  Skeleton  Rim  for 

Calf  Wheel. 

1  Iron  Tug  Wheel  for  Calf 

Wheel. 

1  16-inch  Bowl  Calf  Wheel 

Gudgeon   with    Band    and 

Bolts. 

1  30- inch  Flange  Calf 
Wheel  Gudgeon  with  Band 
and  Bolts. 

2  Casing  Pullevs. 


Diagram 
No. 


BRAKE  IRONS 

I    Diagram 
No. 


66  1  Brake  Band  for  BuUWheel 

67  1  Brake  Lever  for  BullWhccl 

68  IBrakeStaple  for  Bull  Wheel 
1  Back  Brake  for  vSand  Reel 
if  Wood  Reel. 


n  1  Brake  Band  for  CalfWheel 
rO  1  Brake  Lever  for  Calf  Wheel 
rO  IBrakeStaple  for  CalfWheel 


115 


FIELD      WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS— DOUBLE-TUG  RIG    {Continued) 


WOODWORK 


Diagram 
No. 

26     1  Set  Band  Wheel  Cants. 
25     1  Set  Double  Tug  Pulley 

Cants. 
44-45  1  Set  Double  Tug  Bull 

Wheel    Cants,    Arms    and 

Handles. 


Diagram 
No. 

46-47  1  Set  Calf  Wheel  Cants, 
Arms  and  Handles. 


SAND  REEL 
29     1  Wood  Sand  Reel  or  1  Iron  Sand  Reel  with  Lever  and  Straps. 


Diagram 
No. 


NAILS,  BOLTS  AND  WASHERS 


150  pounds  lOd  Nails. 
150  pounds  20d  Nails. 
150  pounds  30d  Nails. 

4  ^:4x8-inch    Machine  Bolts. 

8  ^^x9-inch    Machine  Bolts. 

3  ^xlO-inch  Machine  Bolts. 

10  ^xl2-inch  Machine  Bolts. 

4  ^xl4-inch  Machine  Bolts. 
4  ^xl6-inch  Machine  Bolts. 

11  ^xlS-inch  Machine  Bolts. 
6  3^x20-inch  Machine  Bolts. 
2  3|x22-inch  Machine  Bolts. 


4  Kxl2-inch  D.  E.  Bolts  with  2- 

inch  Square  Nuts. 
6  Kx22-inch  D.  E-  Bolts  with  2- 

inch  Squat e  Nuts. 
58  ^-inch  Wrought  Iron  Washers 
58  %-inch  Cast  Iron  Washers. 
10  y^-\nch  Cast  Iron  Washeis. 
1  piece  132-inch  Pipe  18  inches 

long. 
Note — The     above     Bolts     and 

Washers    are   in   addition   to 

those     furnished     with     the 

Foundry  Rig  Irons. 


Estimated  shipping  weight  of  complete  specifications  as  shown 
on  this  and  two  preceding  pages,  including  rig  irons  and  lumber, 
78,000  pounds. 


116 


FIELD       WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS     OF     MATERIAL     REQUIRED     TO 
BUILD  A  CALIFORNIA  RIG 

Derrick  82  Feet  High  ivith  20  Foot  Base,  Using  Standdrd  Rig  Irons 


Name  op  Par' 
Oregon  Pine 


Walking  Beam 

Engine  Block 

Main  vSill 

Sub-Sill 

Sampson  Post 

vSelect  Bull  Wheel  Shaft.  .  . 
vSelect  Calf  Wheel  Shaft.  .  . 

Mudsills 

Tail  Sill  and  Post 

Nose  Sill  and  Jack  Post  Cap 

Engine  Mud  Sills 

Casing  Sills 

Jack  Post 

Back  Brake  and  Blocking  . 
Bull  Wheel  and  Calf  Wheel 

Post 

Bumper 

Pony  Sills 

Side  Sills 

Derrick  Sills,  Casing  Rack 

and  Blocking 

Bunting  Pole 

Dead  Man 

Jack  Post  Braces 

Calf  Wheel  Brace 

Back  Brake,  Headache  Post 

Sampson  Post  and  Bull 

Wheel  Braces 

CalfWheelandShortBraces 

Select  Crown  Blocks 

Knuckle  Post 

Pitman  and  Swing  Lever.  . 
Band  Wheel  (surface  1  side) 
Derrick  Foundation  Floor, 

Walk  and  Girts 

Derrick    Foundation     and 

Girts 

Girts  and  Top  of  Derrick.  . 

Girts 

Starting     Legs     and     Belt 

House  Sills 

Doublers 

Derrick  Legs  and  to  cut  up 


Size  in 

Length 

Total 

Inches 

in  Feet 

Feet 

12x12x12x26 

26 

676 

22x22 

9 

363 

16x16 

30 

640 

16x16 

20 

427 

16x16 

16 

341 

16x16 

14 

299 

16x16 

6 

128 

14x14 

16 

1045 

14x14 

16 

261 

14x14 

16 

261 

14x14 

14 

458 

14x14 

12 

392 

14x14 

12 

196 

12x12 

20 

240 

12x10 

24 

480 

10x12 

14 

140 

10x12 

12 

240 

8x8 

22 

234 

8x8 

20 

1177 

6x6 

26 

78 

6x6 

20 

60 

6x6 

18 

108 

6x6 

16 

48 

6x6 

14 

210 

4x6 

16 

160 

5x16 

16 

214 

5x16 

12 

80 

5x5x5x14 

12 

140 

2x12 

20 

560 

2x12 

20 

2160 

2x12 

18 

288 

2x12 

16 

256 

2x12 

14 

112 

2x10 

26 

258 

2x10 

24 

1120 

2x10 

16 

540 

ir 


FIELD       WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS— CALIFORNIA  RIG    {Continued) 


No.  of 
Pieces 

Name  of  Part 
Oregon  Pine 

Size  in 
Inches 

Length 
in  Feet 

Total 
Feet 

12 

4 

Derrick   Roof,    Forge   and 

Belt  House 

Starting  Legs. 

2x8 

2x8 

2.x8 

2x8 

2x6 

2x6 

2x6 

2x6 

2x6 

2x6 

2x4 

2x4 

2x4 

1x12 

1x12 

1x12 

1x12 
1x12 
1x6 

18 
18 
16 
24 
26 
20 
18 
16 
14 
12 
16 
14 
12 
20 
18 
16 

14 
12 
16 

288 
96 

20 

1 
5 

Derrick  Legs  and  to  cut  up 
Bunting  Pole  to  Jack  Post 
Belt  House 

420 

32 

130 

17 
8 

12 
2 
3 

20 
3 

Braces 

Braces 

Braces  and  to  cut  up 

Engine  House 

Engine  House 

Ladders  and  to  cut  up 

Engine  House. .. . 

340 

144 

192 

28 

36 

220 

27 

3 

Engine  House 

24 

30 

75 

Boarding  up 

Boarding  up 

600 
1350 

146 
50 

60 
60 

Girts  and  Boarding  up.  .  .  . 
Engine  House  Siding  and 

Boarding  up 

Boarding  up 

Braces  and  Ladders  Strips 

Total  Oregon  Pine 

2336 

700 
720 
480 

22,553 

1 

1 
1 

Hardwood 
Oak  Top  of  Crown  Block.  . 
Oak  Top  of  Crown  Block.  . 
Oak  Top  of  Beam  and  Dog 

Total  Hardwood 

4x5 
4x5 
2x12 

16 
14 
16 

27 
23 
32 

82 

CANTS— SINGLE  TUG 

56  lx8-inch  Plain  for  10-foot  Band  8  2^  2x8-inch  Plain  for  7-foot  Tug 

Wheel.  Pulley. 

8  23>^x8-inch  Grooved  for  8-foot  8  2i/2x8-inch  Grooved  for  7-foot 

Bull  Wheel.  Tug  Pulley. 

8  21  9x8-inch  Plain  for  8-foot  Bull  16  lx8-inch  Plain  for  7-foot  Tug 

Wheel.  Pulley. 

72  lx8-inch  Plain  for  8-foot  Bull  32  lineal  feet  13/2-inch  O. P.  Round 

Wheel.  B.W.  Handles. 


8  2i^x8-inch   Plain  for  712-foot 
Calf  Wheel. 
40  lx8-inch  Plain  for  71^-foot  Calf 
Wheel. 


1  Hardwood  Follower. 
24  O.  P.  Rig  Keys. 


118 


FIELD       WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS     CALIFORNIA  RIG    (Conliuued) 

NAILS,  BOLTvS,  WASIIJvKS,  KTC. 

50  pounds  60d  NaiLs.  16  ^xU-inch  Bolts. 

100  pounds  40d  Nails.  14  »/4xl2-inch  Bolts. 

100  pounds  30d  Nails.  8  ^4xlO-inch  Bolts. 

100  pounds  20d  Nails.  5  Mx8-inch  Bolts. 

150  pounds  lOd  Nails.  4  ^ix26-inch  D.  E-  Bolts. 


2  =^4x38-inch  Bolts. 
2  34x32-inch  Bolts. 


1  piece  lJ/2-inch  Round  Iron  16 


1  =Ux30-inch  Bolts. 

1  =^4x24-inch  Bolts. 

2  ^4x22-inch  Bolts. 
4  ^4x20-inch  Bolts. 

12  Mxl8-inch  Bolts. 
20  ^xl6-inch  Bolts. 


1  Complete  Set  Bu 


inches  long. 
6  13^-inch  Cast  Iron  Washers. 
20  1-inch  Cast  Iron  Washers. 
25  1-inch  Wrought  Iron  Washers. 
125  •^4-inch  Cast  Iron  Washers. 
100  ^4-inch Wrought  IronWashers 
1  600-foot  Coil  Guy  Wire. 

RIG  IRONS 
1  Complete  Set  Rig  and  Calf  Wheel  Irons. 

BRAKE  IRONS 
I  Wheel  and  Calf  Wheel  Brake  Irons. 

SAND  REEL 
Drum  vSand  Reel  with  Cast  Iron  or  Steel 


1  Single  or  Double 
I'langcs  with  Lever. 

SPECIFICATIONS     OF     MATERIAL     REQUIRED     TO 

BUILD    A    CALIFORNIA    COMBINATION 

STANDARD  AND  ROTARY  RIG 

Derrick  102  Feet  High  ivith  22  Foot  Base,  Using  Standard  Rig  Irons . 


No.  of 
Pieces 


Name  of  Part 
Oregon  Pine 


Mudsills 

Mud  Sills 

Sampson  Post 

Jack  Post 

Tail  Sill 

Sub  Sill 

Main  Sill 

Nose  Sill  and  Back  Brake 

Pony  Sills 

Engine  Blocks 

Walking  Beam 

Calf  Wheel  Post 

Bull  Wheel  Post 

Jack  Sills 


Size  in 
Inches 


16x16 
16x16 
16x16 
16x16 
16x16 
16x16 
16x16 
14x14 
14x14 
22x22 
14x14x30 
12x12 
12x12 
14x14 


Length 
in  Feet 


16 
20 
16 
16 
16 
20 
32 
16 
12 
9 
26 
26 
22 
22 


Total 
Feet 


1365 
853 
341 
341 
341 
427 
683 
261 
392 
726 
910 
312 
264 
719 


119 


FIELD      WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS— COMBINATION     STANDARD    AND 
ROTARY  RIG   {Continued) 


No.  of 
Pieces 


Name  of  Part 
Oregon  Pine 


Size  in 

Length 

Inches 

in  Feet 

12x12 

13 

6x8 

30 

6x8 

16 

6x8 

10 

6x6 

16 

4x6 

20 

4x6 

16 

4x6 

14 

3x12 

18 

3x12 

16 

2x12 

16 

2x12 

22 

2x12 

20 

2x8 

24 

6x6x16 

14 

6x6x16 

12 

2x6 

26 

2x6 

24 

2x6 

22 

2x6 

20 

2x6 

14 

2x6 

12 

2x4 

12 

1x8 

16 

1x8 

20 

1x12 

16 

1x12 

14 

1x12 

20 

1x12 

24 

12x12 

24 

10x10 

22 

8x8 

20 

2x10 

26 

2x10 

18 

2x10 

16 

2x12 

24 

2x12 

22 

2x12 

20 

2x12 

18 

2x12 

16 

2x12 

14 

Top  Derrick 

Bunting  Pole 

Headache  Post 

Back  Brake  Sill 

Sampson  Posts 

Braces 

Braces 

Braces 

Arms,  Surface  4  sides 

Arms,  Surface  4  sides 

Band  Wheel,  Surface  1  side 
Band  Wheel,  Surface  1  side 
Band  Wheel,  Surface  1  side 

Derrick 

Pitman 

Swing  Lever 

Belt  House 

Belt  House 

Belt  House 

Braces 

Engine  House 

Engine  House 

Engine  House 

Derrick 

Belt  House 

Engine  House  and  Derrick. 
Engine  House  and  Derrick. 

Belt  House 

Belt  House , 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 


120 


FIELD      WORK 

SPECIFICATIONS     COMBINATION    STANDARD    AND 
ROTARY  RIG   iContimicd) 


Name  of  Part 
Oregon  Pine 


Size  in 
Inches 


Length 
in  Feet 


Total 
Feet 


Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Derrick 

Doublers 

Doublers 

Doublers 

B.  \V.  ArmsS.  4S 

C.  W.  ArmsS.  4S 

Band  Wheel  S.  IS 

Sway  Braces 

Sway  Braces 

Sway  Braces 

Sway  Braces 

Sway  Braces 

Sway  Braces 

Sway  Braces 

Sway  Braces 

Sway  Braces 

Total  Oregon  Pine,  feet. 

Redwood 
Corners 

Hardwood 

Bull  Wheel  Shaft,  Oak 

Calf  Wheel  Shaft,  Oak 

Crown  Block,  Oak 

Crown  Block,  Oak 

Crown  Block,  Oak 

Crown  Block,  Oak 

Crown  Block  and  Post 

Total  Hardwood,  feet.  .  , 


2x12 
2x12 
2x6 
2x6 
2x6 
2x6 
2x6 
2x8 
2x8 
2x12 
2x12 
2x12 
23^x10 
23^x12 
2x12 
2x12 
2x12 
2x12 
2x12 
2x12 
2x10 
2x10 
2x10 
2x10 


3x12 


12 
10 
24 
22 
20 
18 
16 
16 
14 
18 
20 
22 
18 
16 
18 
22 
20 
18 
16 
14 
28 
26 
24 
22 


20 


16x16 

14 

16x16 

6 

6x6 

12 

6x6 

6 

2x12 

6 

6x16 

16 

6x16 

14 

192 
200 
168 
176 
160 
288 
128 
384 
299 
144 

80 

2464 

150 

80 
144 
176 
160 
144 
128 
112 
373 
693 
320 
293 


28,251 


960 


299 

128 

72 

18 

12 

128 

224 


881 


121 


FIELD       WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS— COMBINATION    STANDARD    AND 
ROTARY  RIG     (Contimied) 


NAILS, 

100  pounds  60d  Nails. 
200  pounds  30d  Nails. 
200  pounds  20d  Nails. 
200  pounds  lOd  Nails. 

2  s^xlO-inch  Bolts. 
22  34xl2-inch  Bolts. 
10  34xl4-inch  Bolts. 
20  34xl6-inch  Bolts. 
45  ^^xlS-inch  Bolts. 

6  3ix20-inch  Bolts. 


BOLTS, 


WASHERS,  ETC. 

2  34x24-inch  Bolts. 

2  34x28-inch  Bolts. 

3  s^xSO-inch  Bolts. 
2  hx42-inch  Bolts. 


-inch  Cast  Iron  Washers. 
:4-inch  Wrought  IronWashers. 


18  1 
84  3. 

24  1-inch  Wrought  Iron  Washers 
1  600-foot  Coil  3  8-inch  GuyWire 


CANTS— SINGLE  AND  DOUBLE  TUG 

For  specifications  of  cants  see  specifications  for  regular  and  heavy 
California  rigs  on  preceding  page. 

RIG  IRONS 

One  Complete  Set  Rig  and  Calf  Wheel  Irons. 

BRAKE  IRONS 
1  Complete  Set  Bull  Wheel  and  Calf  Wheel  Brake  Wheel. 


1  Single  or  Double  Drum  Sand  Reel 
Flanges  with  Lever. 


with  Cast  Iron  or  Steel 


Fig. 


14— MOVING  A    DRILLING  BOILER    WITH  OXEN 
BLUE  CREEK  FIELD   {W.  VA.) 


IN 


FIELD       WORK 


Fig.  15— STEEL  CROWN 

BLOCK 

Weight,  1200  lbs. 


'F*  '    .  ,    I  Bio— a-t     ^.V„t.r 

Fig.  lU—IlVDR.AULlC  KO'F.ARY   RIC 


123 


FIELD      WORK 

SPECIFICATIONS     OF     MATERIAL     REQUIRED      TO 
BUILD  A  CALIFORNLA.  HEAVY  RIG 

Derrick  82  Feet  High  with  20  Foot  Base,  Using  Ideal  Rig  Irons 


No.  of 
Pieces 


Name  of  Part 
Oregon  Pine 


Size  in 

Length 

Inches 

in  Feet 

14x14x14x30 

26 

22x24 

9 

16x16 

30 

16x16 

20 

16x16 

16 

16x16 

14 

16x16 

14 

14x14 

16 

14x14 

16 

14x14 

20 

14x14 

14 

14x14 

12 

12x12 

24 

12x12 

20 

12x12 

14 

8x8 

26 

8x8 

22 

8x8 

20 

6x6 

20 

6x6 

18 

6x6 

16 

6x6 

14 

4x6 

16 

6x16 

16 

5x16 

12 

6x6x6x16 

12 

5x5x5x14 

12 

3x12 

18 

3x12 

16 

2x12 

20 

2x12 

20 

2x12 

18 

2x12 

16 

Select  Beam 

Engine  Block 

Main  Sill 

Sub  Sill 

Sampson  Post 

Jack  Post 

Select  Bull  Wheel  Shaft.  .  .  . 
Rig  and  Engine  Mud  Sills.  . 

Tail  Sill  and  Post 

Blocking 

Casing  Sills 

Pony  Sills  and  Nose  Sill..  .  . 
Bull  and  Calf  Wheel  Posts  . 
Back  Brake  and  Blocking... 

Biunper 

Bunting  Pole 

Side  Sills 

Derrick    Sills    and    Casing 

Rack  and  Blocking 

Dead  Men 

Jack  Post  Braces 

Calf  Wheel  Brace 

Back  Brake,  Headache  Post, 

Sampson    Post    and    Bull 

Wheel  Braces 

Calf  Wheel  andShortBraces 

Select  Crown  Blocks 

Knuckle  Post 

Select  Pitman 

Select  Swing  Lever 

Select  S.  4  S.  to  2i/^xll-inch 

Bull  Wheel  Arms 

Select  S.  4  S.  to  2i.^xll-inch 

Calf  Wheel  Arms 

S.  IS.  Band  Wheel 

Derrick   Foundation  Floor, 

Walk  and  Girts 

Derrick     Foundation     and 

Girts 

Girts  and  Top  of  Derrick  .  . 


124 


FIELD       WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS     CALIFORNIA   HEAVY   RIG     {Cant.) 


No.  of 
Pieces 

Name  of  Part 
Oregon  Pine 

Size  in 
Inches 

Length 
in  Feet 

Total 
Feet 

4 

Girts 

2x12 
2x12 

2x10 
2x10 
2x10 
2x8 

2x8 

2x6 

2x6 

2x6 

2x6 

2x6 

2x6 

2x4 

2x4 

2x4 

1x12 

1x12 

1x12 

1x12 
1x12 
1x6 

14 
24 

26 
18 
16 
24 

18 
26 
20 
18 
16 
14 
12 
16 
14 
12 
20 
18 
16 

14 
12 
16 

112 

28 

Doublers 

1344 

6 

4 
48 

I 
12 

Starting     Legs     and     Belt 
House  Sills 

Short  Starting  Legs 

Derrick  Legs  and  to  cut  up. 

Bunting  Pole  to  Jack  Post. 

Derrick    Roof,    Forge    and 
Belt  House 

258 

120 

1296 

32 

288 

5 

Belt  House 

130 

17 

Braces 

340 

8 

Braces 

144 

12 
2 
3 

20 
3 

Braces  and  to  cut  up 

Engine  House 

Engine  House 

Ladders  and  to  cut  up 

Engine  House. . . . 

192 
28 
36 

220 

27 

3 
30 

75 

146 

50 

60 
60 

Engine  House 

Boarding  up 

Boarding  up 

Girts  and  Boarding  up 

Engine  House  Siding,  Der- 
rick Roof  and  Boarding  up 

Boarding  up 

Braces  and  Ladder  Strips... 

Total  Oregon  Pine.  . 

24 

600 

1350 

2336 

700 
720 
480 

24  547 

1 
1 
1 
1 

Hardwood 

Oak  Calf  Wheel  Shaft 

Oak  Top  of  Crown  Block. . . 
Oak  Top  of  Crown  Block. . . 
Oak  Top  of  Beams  and  Dog 

Total  Hardwood 

16x16 
5x6 
5x6 
2x12 

6 
16 
14 
16 

128 
40 
35 
32 

235 

4 
4 

*Oregon  Pine 

Girts 

Girts 

2x12 

2x12 

2x12 

2x12 

2x8 

2x8 

2x8 

2x8 

18 
16 
14 
20 
22 
20 
18 
16 

144 
128 

4 
2 
8 
8 
8 
8 

Girts 

Girts 

Braces 

Braces 

Braces 

Braces 

112 
80 
235 
213 
192 
171 

Total 

1,275 

'Note — If  outside  girts  and  braces  are  wanted,  add  the  following. 

125 


FIELD      WORK 


CANTS— DOUBLE  TUGS 


56  lx8-inch  Plain  for  10-foot  Band 

Wheel. 
16  21  i2x8-inch  Grooved  for  8-foot 

Bull  Wheel. 
8  21  9x8-inch  Plain  for  8-foot  Bull 

Wheel. 
80  lx8-inch  Plain  for  8-foot  Bull 

Wheel. 
8  2V9x8-inch    Plain    for    T^-foot 

Calf  Wheel. 
40  lx8-inch  Plain  for  7}  9-foot  Calf 

Wheel. 


24  0.  P.  Rig  Keys. 

16  2i/^x8-inch  Grooved  for  7-foot 

Tug  Pullev. 
8  2i^x8-inch  Plain  for  7-foot  Tug 

Pulley. 
24  lx8-inch  Plain  for  7-foot  Tug 

Pulley. 
32  lineal  feet  iH-inch  O.  P. Round 

B.  W.  Handles. 
1  Hardwood  Follower. 


NAILS,  BOLTS,  WASHERS,  ETC. 


50  pound 
100  pound 
100  pound 
100  pound 
150  pound 


2  3 

9 


4x42- 
34x32- 


1  3^x30- 
34x30- 
34x26- 
34x24- 
4x22- 
4x20- 


26  34XI8- 


s  60d  Nails. 
s  40d  Nails, 
s  30d  Nails, 
s  20d  Nails, 
s  lOd  Nails, 
inch  Bolts, 
inch  Bolts, 
inch  Bolt, 
inch  Bolt, 
inch  Bolt, 
inch  Bolt, 
inch  Bolts, 
inch  Bolts, 
inch  Bolts. 


12  ^4xl6-inch  Bolts. 
10  34xl4-inch  Bolts. 
25  34xl2-inch  Bolts. 

1  3.4xl0-inch  Bolt. 

2  ^4x8-inch  Bolts. 

4  Kx28-inch  D.  E-  Bolts. 

1  piece   li/2-inch   Round   Iron,    16 
inches  long. 

2  13/2-inch  Cast  Iron  Washers. 
20  1-inch  Cast  Iron  Washers. 

25  1-inch  Wrought  Iron  Washers. 
130  3^-inch  Cast  Iron  Washers. 
100  3^-inch  Wrought  Iron  Washers. 
1  600-foot  Coil  Guy  Wire. 


IDEAL  RIG  IRONS 

1  Complete  Set  5-  or  6-inch  Ideal  Rig  and  Sprocket  Calf  Wheel 
Irons. 


BRAKE  IRONS 
1  Set  Bull  Wheel  and  Calf  Wheel  Brake  Irons. 


SAND  REEL 
1  Double  Drum  Sand  Reel  with  Steel  Flanges  with  Lever. 

126 


FIELD       WORK 


SPECIFICATIONS     OF     MATERIAL     REQUIRED     TO 
BUILD  A  CALIFORNIA  ROTARY  RIG 

Derrick  106  Feet  High  with  24  ^out  Base 


Name  of  Part 
Oregon  Pine 


Size  in 
Inches 


Length 
in  Feet 


Total 
Feet 


Engine  Block 

Mud  Sills 

Pony  Sills 

Blocking 

Casing  Sills 

Blocking 

Bumper 

Side  Sills 

Derrick  Sills 

Casing  Sills  and  Blocking.  .  .  . 

Dead  Men 

Pump  Foundation 

Select  Crown  Block 

Floor  Girts  and  Doublers  .  .  .  . 

Girts 

Girts 

Girts 

Girts 

Derrick  Foundation  and  Top. 

Derrick  Foundation 

Starting  Legs 

Starting  Legs 

Derrick  Legs 

Top  of  Derrick 

First  Set  Braces 

Second  Set  Braces 

Third  vSet  Braces 

Fourth  Set  Braces 

Fifth  Set  Braces 

Sixth  vSet  Braces 

Ladders  and  to  cut  up 

Boarding  up 

Boarding  up 

Boarding  up 

Braces  and  Ladder  Strips 


Total  Oregon  Pine.  . 
Hardwood 
Oak  Top  of  Crown  Block 
Oak  Top  of  Crown  Block 


22x24 

14x14 

14x14 

14x14 

14x14 

12x12 

12x12 

10x10 

8x8 

8x8 

6x6 

6x6 

6x16 

2x12 

2x12 

2x12 

2x12 

2x12 

2x12 

2x12 

2x10 

2x10 

2x10 

2x10 

2x8 

2x8 

2x8 

2x6 

2x6 

2x6 

2x4 

1x12 

1x12 

1x12 

1x6 


5x6 
5x6 


9 
16 
12 
20 
24 
20 
14 
26 
24 
20 
20 
18 
16 
24 
22 
20 
18 
16 
20 
18 
26 
18 
16 
18 
24 
22 
20 
20 
18 
16 
16 
24 
20 
16 
16 


396 
522 
392 
327 
784 
240 
168 
434 

1024 

428 

120 

324 

96 

3456 
352 
160 
288 
128 
920 
432 
172 
120 

1458 
120 
256 
232 
216 
160 
144 
128 
330 

1200 

1500 
800 
560 

18.387 

40 
35 


Total  Hardwood ! i 


NAILS,  ETC.— 1(H)  pouiuis  4Ucl  Nails.  100  pounds  30ci  Nails,  100  pounds  20d 
Nails,  100  pounds  lOd  Nails,  2 — OOO-foot  Coils  Guy  Wire. 

127 


FIELD      WORK 


Fig.  17— POLE  TOOL  RIG  (CANADIAN) 


128 


FIELD       WORK 

Bull  Wheel — The  bull  wheel  is  the  large  wheel  on  the 
derrick  floor  on  which  is  coiled  the  manila  or  wire  line  used 
in  drilling. 

The  first  American  saw  mills  used  the  wheel  to  haul 
logs  out  of  the  water  to  the  saw.  It  was  first  known  as  the 
"pull  wheel,"  but  from  its  strength  the  word  was  changed 
to  "bull  wheel". 

Bull  Rope — The  "Bull  Rope"  acts  as  a  belt  between 
the  band  wheel  and  the  "bull  wheel".  It  probably  takes  its 
name  from  the  "bull  wheel".  It  is  generally  made  from  a 
piece  of  the  drilling  cable  of  a  two  or  two  and  one-half  inch 
manila  rope. 

Walking  Beam — The  walking  beam  is  as  old  as  pre- 
historic times.  It  was  originally  the  "working  beam  "  but 
the  name  was  changed  to  "walking  beam,"  probably 
through  the  peculiar  motion  resembling  walking.  It  was 
used  by  the  Eg>^ptians  and  was  known  as  "Shadoof,"  a 
device  for  raising  water  from  the  Nile  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses. In  this  country  it  is  familiarly  known  as  the  "well 
sweep."  The  first  steamships  used  it  and  caUed  it  the 
"walking  beam." 


Fig.  IS— MIDWAY   FIELD.   KERX  COL'Ml.   lALIFORMA 

129 


FIELD      WORK 


130 


CO^NIPLETK  "STRING"  OF  DRILLING  TOOLS 


«c=:Cn31!3^3S3ffil^ 


"^ 


ill  l^illil 
^:*2  =„  =  !  bs  =  oi 


FIELD       WORK 


Drilling— Wells  vary  in  depth  from  200  feet  to  7000 
feet.  Very  shallow  wells  are  from  two  to  sixteen  inches  in 
diameter.  Deep  gas  wells  start  with  a  ten  inch  hole,  or  larger, 
depending  on  the  formation,  and  finish  with  a  hole  from  four 
and  seven-eighths  inches  to  six  and  one-quarter  inches  in 
diameter.  The  hole  is  reduced  in  size  from  time  to  time  as 
the  drill  proceeds,  each  reduction  being  after  the  casing  is 
put  in,  after  which  the  well  is  allowed  to  stand  long  enough 
to  determine  whether  the  hole  has  been  cased  dry  or  not. 

The  casing  should  extend  beyond  the  flow  of  water. 
Often  a  steel  shoe  is  used  on  the  bottom  of  dry  pipe  or  casing. 
This  makes  the  casing  tight  at  the  bottom  and  less  apt  to 
leak,  but  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  harder  to  pull  the  casing 
afterward. 

In  event  of  the  casing  leaking  after  being  set,  wheat  or 
rice  can  be  put  in  on  the  outside  of  the  casing  and  often- 
times will  stop  the  leakage.  Where  there  is  no  water  directly 
beneath  the  gas  vein,  the  well  should  be  drilled  about  25 
feet  deeper,  thus  forming  a  pocket  for  the  accumulation  of 
sand  and  cave-ins. 

Where  there  is  water  underneath  the  gas  sand  and  the 
sand  is  shallow,  do  not  drill  over  one  screw  into  the  sand.  If 
the  sand  is  deep,  two  or  more  screws  are  sufficient. 


DRIVE  PIPE 


Nominal 

Nominal 

Number  of 
Threads 
per  Inch 

Outside 

Inside 
Diameter 

Thickness 
Inch 

Weight 
per  Foot 

Diameter  of 
Couplings 

Inches 

Pounds 

Inches 

3 

0.217 

7.54 

8 

41^8 

4 

0.237 

10.66 

8 

^H 

6 

0.280 

18.76 

8 

n-z 

8 

0.322 

28.18 

8 

9H 

8 

0.363 

32.00 

8 

9H 

10 

0.366 

40.06 

8 

im 

12 

0.375 

49.00 

8 

13f^ 

14 

0.375 

58.00 

8 

16A 

FIELD      WORK 


132 


FIELD       WORK 


Fig.  22~P0RT ABLE   DRILLING  MACHINE 

Wood  Conductor  Pipe — This  style  of  pipe  is  often  used 
in  place  of  iron  drive  pipe  where  the  rock  is  not  very  far 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  cheaper  than  the  regu- 
lar drive  pipe  and  ser\^es  its  purpose  fully  as  well  in  keeping 
the  mud  or  clay  from  caving  into  the  hole  while  drilling. 


=S7Tt>7t' 


■^j$*.'>4^tfB 


MiHIMMIf 


M 


Fig.  23— WOOD  CONDUCTOR 
Used  in  Lieu  of  Drive  Pipe.     Octagon,  in  Lengths  of  16  Feet. 


133 


FIELD      WORK 


SIZES  OF  CASING 

Nominal 

Outside 

Diameter 

Inches 

Nominal 

Number 

Outside 

Inside 

Weight 

of 

Diameter  of 

Diameter 

per  Foot 

Threads 

Couplings 

Inches 

Pounds 

per  Inch 

Inches 

2 

2M 

2.16 

14 

2.687 

2^ 

2^ 

2.75 

14 

2.875 

2H 

2^ 

3.04 

14 

3.187 

2M 

3 

3.33 

14 

3.500 

3 

3M 

3.96 

14 

3.781 

3M 

3^ 

4.28 

14 

4.000 

3H 

3^ 

4.60 

14 

4.250 

3^ 

4 

5.47 

14 

4.625 

4 

43^ 

5.85 

14 

4.687 

4M 

43^ 

6.00 

14 

4.937 

4M 

43^ 

9.00 

14 

4.937 

4>i 

4M 

6.55 

14 

5.218 

4^ 

4M 

9  00 

14 

5.218 

4% 

5 

7.58 

14 

5.562 

5 

5M 

8.00 

14 

5.781 

5 

5M 

10.00 

14 

5.781 

5 

5M 

13.00 

113^ 

5.781 

5 

5M 

17.00 

113^ 

5.781 

5A 

53^ 

8.40 

14 

6.062 

5A 

51^ 

13.00 

UK 

6.062 

5^ 

6 

10.16 

14 

6.062 

m 

6 

12.00 

113^^ 

6.625 

5^ 

6 

14.00 

113^ 

6.625 

5^ 

6 

17.00 

11^ 

6.625 

6M 

6^ 

11.50 

14 

7.125 

6M 

6^ 

13.00 

113^ 

7.125 

6M 

6^ 

17.00 

113^ 

7.125 

6^ 

7 

12.45 

14 

7.687 

65^ 

7 

17.00 

10 

7.687 

7M 

7^ 

13.50 

14 

8.220 

7^ 

8 

15.00 

113^ 

8.625 

7% 

8 

20.00 

113^ 

8.625 

8M 

8^ 

16.00 

113^ 

9.312 

8M 

8^ 

20.00 

113^ 

9.312 

8>i 

8^ 

24.00 

8 

9.312 

8^ 

9 

17.50 

113^ 

9.750 

9% 

10 

21.00 

113^ 

10.812 

10^ 

11 

23.00 

113^ 

115/^ 

12 

25.15 

113^ 

123^ 

13 

35.75 

113^ 

133^ 

14 

42.02 

113^ 

143^ 

15 

47.66 

113^ 

1512 

16 

51.47 

11^2 

! 

134 


FIELD       WORK 

WEIGHT     OF     WATER     IN     PIPE     OF     DIFFERENT 

DIAMETERS    IN    LENGTHS    OF    ONE    FOOT 

62.425  POUNDS  PER  CUBIC  FOOT 

The  following  table  will  be  found  useful  in  computing  the  weight 
of  water  in  a  string  of  pipe  or  casing  in  a  well. 


Diameter 

Water 

Diameter 

Water 

Diameter 

Water 

Inches 

Pounds 

Inches 

Pounds 

Inches 

Pounds 

1 

.3405 

5 

8.5119 

1034 

37.537 

iVs 

.4309 

5M 

9.3844 

11 

41 . 198 

IH 

.5320 

5^ 

10.299 

113-2 

45.028 

IVs 

.6437 

5^ 

11.257 

12 

49.028 

I'A 

.7661 

6 

12.257 

1232 

53.199 

IVs 

.8997 

6K 

13  300 

13 

57.540 

IH 

1.0427 

63^ 

14.385 

1332 

62.052 

iVs 

1.1970 

Q% 

15.513 

14 

66.733 

2 

1.3619 

7 

16.683 

15 

76.607 

2H 

1.5375 

7M 

17.896 

16 

87.162 

2K 

1.7237 

73^ 

19.152 

17 

98.397 

2^ 

2.1280 

m 

20.450 

18 

110.31 

2^ 

2 . 5748 

8 

21 . 990 

19 

122.91 

3 

3.0643 

8M 

23.174 

20 

136.10 

m 

3.5963 

83^ 

24.599 

21 

150.15 

33^ 

4.1708 

8M 

26.068 

22 

164.79 

3M 

4.7879 

9 

27.579 

23 

180.11 

4 

5.4476 

93^ 

29.132 

24 

196.11 

4M 

6 . 1498 

93^ 

30.728 

25 

212.80 

43^ 

6.8946 

934 

32.366 

26 

230.16 

m 

7 . 6820 

10 

34.048 

27 
28 

248.21 
266  93 

Water  Pressure — The  pressure  of  still  water  in  pounds 
per  square  inch  against  the  sides  of  any  pipe  or  vessel  of 
any  shape  is  due  alone  to  the  head  or  height  of  the  surface 
of  the  water  above  the  point  pressed  upon,  and  is  equal  to 
0.434  pounds  per  square  inch  for  every  foot  of  head,  the 
fluid  pressure  being  equal  in  all  directions.  For  example: 
the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  at  the  bottom  of  well 
tubing  1,000  feet  deep  and  filled  with  water  would  be  0.434 
X  1,000  =  434  pounds  pressure. 

135 


FIELD      WORK 


136 


FIELD       WORK 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  MUD  LADEN  FLUID  METHOD 

AS  EMPLOYED  TO  CONSERVE  THE  NATURAL 

GAS  RESOURCES  IN  DRILLING  FOR  OIL 

Extract  from  Technical  Paper  No.  68,  Bureau  of  Mines. 
1914  demonstration  made  in  the  Gushing  (Okla.)  field. 

vSuch  enormous  waste  of  an  important  natural  resource 
indicates  that  the  methods  that  were  employed  were  faulty 
and  that  better  methods,  which  shall  at  once  be  successful 
and  practical,  should  be  devised.  For  this  purpose  the 
Bureau  of  Mines  proposed  to  investigate  the  possibilities  of 
adapting  the  use  of  clay  and  water,  which  was  devised  for 
use  with  rotary  rigs,  and  developed  in  Louisiana,  Texas 
and  California,  to  the  dry-hole  method  of  drilling  practiced 
in  Oklahoma.  To  accomplish  this  it  was  necessary  to  obtain 
the  co-operation  of  well  operators  that  a  practical  test  and 
demonstration  of  the  method  might  be  made. 

DEMONSTRATIONS    OF    THE    MUD-LADEN    FLUID 
METHOD 

Demonstration  at  the  Greis  Well — The  first  well  for 
demonstration  was  ofi'ered  by  Mr.  Henry  N.  Greis,  of  Tulsa, 
Okla  This  well  was  in  the's.  Yi  SB.  '\i  sec.  8,  Tp.  17  N., 
R.  7  E.  It  had  been  drilled  to  a  depth  of  about  1,700  feet 
on  April  11,  1913,  when  gas  from  the  Jones  sand  was  en- 
countered unexpectedly.  The  gas  was  ignited  from  a  forge 
on  the  derrick  floor,  and  the  fire  destroyed  the  rig. 

After  the  rig  was  rebuilt,  drilling  was  continued  until 
May  2,  w^hen  it  was  stopped  in  black  shale  at  a  depth  of 
2,140  feet.  The  hole  was  then  filled  with  mud- laden  water, 
and  was  allowed  to  stand  full  of  this  fluid  until  Alay  5,  when 
drilling  was  resumed.  The  Jones  gas,  which  had  been  es- 
caping from  the  well,  was  successfully  excluded  from  the 
bore  hole  by  the  fluid  mud  and  gave  no  further  trouble. 

137 


FIELD      WORK 


The  hole  was  found  to  be  bridged  at  a  depth  of  about 
1,700  feet,  where  driUing  had  ceased  because  of  the  fire,  the 
strata  there  having  slacked  from  contact  with  clear  water  dur- 
ing the  time  required  to  rebuild  the  rig.  In  drilling  out  this 
bridge  considerable  difficulty  was  encountered  from  caving, 
but  the  drilling  tools  were  on  the  bottom  of  the  hole  by  May 
7.  The  hole  continued  to  cave  at  about  1,700  feet,  and  it  was 
decided  to  insert  6/^-inch  casing.  A  special  casing  shoe  6  feet 
4  inches  long  was  made,  and  the  casing  was  placed  on  May  9. 
Drilling  was  resumed  May  10.  The  casing  was  lowered  as 
the  hole  was  drilled,  and  on  May  1 1  it  was  securely  seated 
at  a  depth  of  2,147  feet,  directly  on  top  of  the  Wheeler  sand. 

On  May  12  the  hole 
was  drilled  10  feet  be- 
low the  casing  into  the 
Wheeler  sand.  Bailing 
showed  considerable 
gas,  but  the  well  was 
quiet  and  no  gas  es- 
caped. The  bailer  and 
tools  brought  out  thick 
mud  and  drilling  be- 
came slower.  May  14  a 
small  quantity  of  sand- 
stone was  thrown  into 
the  well  by  the  drilling 
contractor  and  drilled 
up,  the  tools  going  to  the 
bottom  of  the  hole  and 
the  bailer  following  to 
within  1  foot  of  the  bot- 
tom, where  it  stuck.  The 
^'s-  ^o  sand  line  was  parted  in 

GAS   WELL  NEAR  CORPUS  CHRISTI  ^^      effort     in     null     fViP 

(1914)   BEFORE   THE  GAS  "BLEW  ^^.    ^^"     ^^     P"^^     ^^^ 

OUT"  AROUND  THE  CASING  bailer  loose. 


138 


FIELD       WORK 


On  May  15  the  bailer  was  grabbed  by  a  "latch  jack," 
but  the  latch  was  jarred  through  the  bail.  On  May  16  a  bell 
socket  was  used,  which  brought  up  pieces  of  the  bailer.  At 
no  time  was  any  difficulty  experienced  in  getting  a  hold. 
On  May  19  the  bell  socket  stripped  off  the  mandrel  and  work 
stopped  for  a  new  fishing  tool.  The  bell  socket  was  recovered 
May  20  by  means  of  a  tubing  spear.  On  May  21  drilling  was 
resumed  in  an  attempt  to  drill  out  the  remainder  of  the 
bailer,  about  one-half  having  been  removed  by  the  bell  socket. 
On  May  22  the  sand  pump  that  had  been  used  for  removing 
the  pieces  of  the  bailer  as  they  were  drilled  up  became  fast 
in  the  hole  and  could  not  be  loosened.  The  fluid  was  bailed 
out  of  the  hole,  and  by  means  of  a  latch  jack  a  hold  obtained 
on  the  sand  pump,  which  was  easily  removed  on  May  26. 

The  gas  pressure 
cleansed  the  well  of  mud 
and  the  tools  were  started 
in  to  drill  up  the  bailer  in 
the  dr}^  hole.  Large  pieces 
of  steel  were  blown  from 
the  well  by  the  gas,  the 
flow  of  which  increased 
gradually  as  the  hole  was 
deepened,  until  the  tools 
would  no  longer  drop  with 
force  enough  to  make 
hole.  On  May  28  the  well 
was  shut  down  and  the 
flow  of  gas  measured.  The 
flow  was  more  than  22.- 
000,000  cubic  feet  a  day. 

On  May  31  the  well 
was  hlled  with  mud-laden 
fluid.     A  gate  valve  was 

Fig.  26~A   BLOWOUT  IN   GOOSE  ,  , 

CREEK  FIELD  (TEX.)  pUlCCd       OU       tOp       Of       the 


139 


FIELD      WORK 

6^-inch  casing  and  connected  by  means  of  a  swage  nipple 
to  a  double  joint  of  10-inch  casing  provided  with  a  top 
gate  valve.  The  casing  was  anchored  to  "dead  men"  buried 
below  the  derrick  floor  and  was  securely  braced  in  the  der- 
rick to  avoid  danger  of  its  swinging  so  as  to  loosen  the 
joints  at  the  top  of  the  well. 

In  filling  the  well  with  fluid  the  lower  gate  valve  was 
closed,  the  upper  one  opened,  and  the  chamber  between  the 
valves  was  filled  with  the  fluid;  the  upper  valve  was  then 
closed  and  the  lower  valve  opened.  The  pressure  in  the 
filling  chamber  being  equalized,  the  mud-laden  fluid,  owing 
to  its  weight,  fell  to  the  bottom  of  the  well,  being  replaced 
in  the  filling  chamber  by  an  equal  volume  of  gas.  By  again 
closing  the  bottom  valve  and  opening  the  top  valve,  the  gas 
displaced  by  the  fluid  was  released  and  the  chamber  was 
ready  for  a  new  charge.  This  operation  was  repeated  until 
the  column  of  fluid  in  the  well  was  so  high  that  its  hydrostatic 
pressure  exceeded  the  rock  pressure  of  the  gas.  The  rest 
of  the  well  was  then  filled  by  pumping  the  fluid  directly  in. 

Drilling  was  resumed  June  2  and  a  quantity  of  steel 
was  removed  from  the  well,  some  pieces  exceeding  1  pound 
in  weight.  The  tools  dropped  freely  and  broke  up  chunks 
of  steel  that  were  not  broken  by  the  tools  when  working  in 
the  dry  hole  with  gas  escaping. 

On  June  6  the  drilling  contractor  again  threw  a  small 
quantity  of  soft  sandstone  into  the  well  and  the  bailer  stuck 
on  the  first  run  after  the  stone  had  been  put  in.  All  efforts 
to  pull  the  bailer  out  by  the  sand  line  failed  and  the  sand 
line  broke.  The  fluid  was  bailed  out  of  the  hole  and  the 
bailer  recovered  on  June  8  by  means  of  a  latch  jack.  When 
the  bailer  was  loosened  it  was  thrown  to  the  top  of  the 
derrick  by  the  gas  that  was  liberated  by  the  removal  of  the 
fluid.  The  well  was  then  filled  again  with  the  fluid  and 
drilling  continued  until  June  12,  when  the  derrick  was  rigged 

140 


FIELD       WORK 

for  casing.  All  10-inch  and  123^-inch  casing  were  pulled  on 
June  13,  the  surface  casing  and  the  8-irch  and  the  6''^-inch 
casing  being  left  in. 

On  June  14,  2,177  feet  of  Oi^-inch  casing  with  a  lead 
shoe  on  the  bottom  was  seated  in  the  well  and  the  mud-laden 
fluid  bailed  out.  The  lead  shoe  and  casing  proved  tight 
against  the  pressure  of  the  column  of  fluid  on  the  outside, 
which  stood  to  the  top  of  the  6^-lnch  casing. 

Drilling  was  resumed  and  22  feet  of  hole  was  made  in 
adv^ance  of  the  casing.  This  hole  struck  a  second  gas  sand, 
and  the  well  was  shut  in  and  again  filled  with  the  fluid  on 
June  17.  The  5A-inch  casing  was  withdrawn  on  June  18. 
The  hole  was  then  reamed  from  2,177  to  2,198  feet  and  the 
or^-inch  casing  was  reset  June  20  with  a  5i^-inch  by  QH 
inch  conical  sleeve  packer,  carr}^ing  26  inches  of  rubber  on 
the  bottom.  The  fluid  was  bailed  out  and  the  casing  found 
to  be  tight,  the  w^ell  was  quiet,  and  no  gas  was  escaping. 

Drilling  was  resumed  June  21.  Oil  was  encountered  the 
next  day,  and  on  June  23  was  spraying  into  a  tank  with  a 
fine  showing  for  a  large  production.  During  the  first  24  hours 
after  the  oil  started  to  flow^  into  the  tank  the  gaged  flow  w^as 
60  barrels,  and  on  June  25  drilling  was  discontinued. 

Results  Obtained  by  the  Test — This  demonstration  of 
the  well-drilling  method  proposed  by  the  Bureau  of  Alines 
proved  the  following  points: 

1.  The  escape  of  gas  from  a  w^ell  during  drilling  can 
be  controlled,  and  formations  can  be  sealed  so  as  to  prevent 
the  further  escape  and  waste  of  gas. 

2.  The  sealed  formations  may  be  reopened  at  any 
time  by  removing  the  fluid  from  the  well,  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  cleansing  out  the  mud  so  that  the  yield  will  not  be 
affected. 

3.  By  sealing  off  gas  with  mud-laden  fluid  it  is  possible  to 
drill  entirely  through  a  gas-bearing  sand  without  wasting  gas. 

141 


FIELD      WORK 

4.  A  record  of  the  gas  bearing  formations  can  be  ob- 
tained with  an  accuracy  that  is  impossible  with  the  "dry- 
hole"  method  of  drilling,  for  the  reason  that  on  drilling  a 
hole  "dry"  the  gas  blows  all  the  finer  drill  cuttings  from  the 
well  and  only  occasionally  are  fragments  found  that  are 
large  enough  to  show  the  character  of  the  formation  pene- 
trated. 

The  following  record  indicates  the  character  of  the 
formations  penetrated  during  the  demonstration,  the  terms 
"sand"  and  "lime"  are  those  recorded  by  the  driller,  the 
samples  not  having  been  examined  by  a  geologist: 


RECORD  OF  WELL  FROM  TOP  OF  WHEELER  SAND 
TO  OIL  SAND 


Material 

Estimated 

Depth 

Thick- 
ness 

Kind 

volimie  per 
day  of  gas 
flow 

Feet 
2,140  to  2,147 

Feet 

7 
26 

6 

2 

5 

5 

8 
14 
12 

Black  shale 

Cubic  Feet 

2,147  to  2,173 
2,173  to  2,179 

Blue-gray  lime  (gas) 

Gray  sand 

22.000,000 

2,179  to  2,181 

Brown  Sand 

2,181  to  2,186 

Blue  shale   . 

2,186  to  2,191 

Black  shale 

2,191  to  2,199 
2,199  to  2,213 
2,213  to  2,225 

Gray  lime  (gas) 

Gray  sand  (gas) 

Gray  sand  (oil) 

5,000,000 
300,000 

The  time  spent  in  the  dift'erent  operations  at  this  well 

was  as  follows: 

May  2,  1913,  started  demonstration. 

June  25,  1913,  completed  demonstration,  with  well  producing  oil. 

Days 
Drilling,  8  days  with  double  tours,  11  days  with  single  tours.  ...     19 

Fishing  and  shutdowns 17 

Drilling  on  lost  bailer  and  removing  bits  of  steel 8 

Casing 5 

Rigging  up  and  filling  well  with  mud-laden  fluid 5 

Total  elapsed  time 54 

142 


FIELD      WORK 

Core  Drill — It  is  very  unusual  to  find  the  Core  Drill  out- 
fit at  work  in  any  gas  field.  While  this  system  of  drilling  is 
commonly  used  for  drilling  wells  for  elevator  plungers  and 
for  geological  tests,  it  is  seldom  used  in  drilling  for  gas. 

It  is  a  rotary  system  for  use  in  Paleozoic  formations, 
differing  greatly,  however,  from  the  rotary  employed  in  the 
Louisiana  and  Texas  fields,  where  the  formation  is  Cre- 
taceous. The  actual  cutting  is  done  by  a  tube  or  casting, 
with  about  a  one-half  inch  surface  or  face,  revolving  on  top 
of  what  is  called  "steel  shot."  The  "steel  shot"  simply 
consists  of  small  pieces  of  chilled  steel,  rather  rough  in  shape, 
and  averaging  about  the  size  of  B.  B.  shot.  Above  the  bit, 
or  cutter,  is  the  reducing  plug,  connecting  same  with  a  calix. 
The  calix  is  connected  with  the  tubing,  which  is  tw^o-  or 
three-inch  and  runs  to  above  the  derrick  floor  through 
rotary  driving  apparatus.  A  stream  of  water  is  pumped  into 
the  tubing,  carr>4ng  with  it  the  chilled  shot  as  required  and 
depositing  the  shot  under  the  bit  or  cutter.  This  method 
cuts  a  core  which  is  taken  out  in  pieces  varying  from  a  few 
inches  to  fourteen  feet  in  length.  The  great  advantage  of 
this  system  is  that  it  shows  the  geological  formation  from 
the  surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  well.  After  the  water  passes 
in  and  around  the  bit  or  cutter,  it  flows  upward,  carrying 
with  it  the  silt  or  drilling  which  is  deposited  in  the  top  of  the 
calix.  The  tendency  of  the  bit  drill  is  to  drill  a  perfectly 
smooth  hole,  thereby  enabling  the  packer  to  set  without 
chance  of  leaking. 

Breaking  off  the  core  is  done  with  the  aid  of  the  circular 
bit,  which  is  slightly  tapered  towards  the  top,  and  by  placing 
gravel  in  the  stream  of  water,  which  is  pumped  into  the 
tubing.  When  the  driller  has  cut  sufficient  core  to  pull  out, 
instead  of  placing  the  shot  in  the  stream  of  water  pumped 
into  the  tubing,  gravel  is  used.  The  gravel  is  deposited 
around  the  inside  of  the  tapered  drill.  This  gravel  becomes 
wedged  between  the  core  and  the  bit  and  during  the  process 

143 


FIELD      WORK 


144 


FIELD      WORK 

of  revolving,  practically  twists  the  core  off  at  the  bottom, 
after  which,  the  tubing  and  the  bit  are  pulled  out,  the  calix  is 
emptied  of  its  drillings  and  the  core  taken  out  of  the  bit.  The 
sides  of  this  core  are  practically  smooth ;  in  fact  they  remind 
one  of  a  marble  column.  This  method  is  spoken  of  as  the 
"core  drilling  system  without  the  use  of  diamonds." 

The  derrick  used  is  of  special  make,  being  125  feet  high 
and  of  bolted  tubing. 

The  well  is  started,  before  striking  the  rock,  by  placing 
a  shoe  and  drive  head,  and  revolving  the  same  as  a  regular 
drill,  using  the  water  system  until  solid  rock  is  reached. 

It  has  been  possible  to  drill  a  little  over  100  feet  in  one 
tower  while  drilling  in  comparatively  soft  rock. 

While  this  method  seems  rather  expensive  to  a  practical 
gas  man,  it  is  of  great  advantage  to  be  able  to  see  the  rock 
formation  at  different  depths  and  to  know  exactly  where  each 
portion  of  the  core  came  from.  In  drilling  for  gas  by  the 
common  standard  method,  one  is  merely  able  to  examine  the 
drillings  and  can  only  guess  within  four  or  live  feet  of  the 
exact  depth  from  which  they  came. 

With  this  method  the  driller  looks  to  his  cable  for 
measurement.  With  1000  or  1500  feet  of  cable  in  the  hole, 
the  stretch  w^ill  amount  to  considerable.  A  steel  measuring 
line  can  be  used  showing  the  depth  or  location  of  the  sand 
more  accurately.  Of  course  in  shooting  the  well,  pieces  of 
rock  of  sufficient  size  to  enable  one  to  make  a  very  careful 
examination  may  be  blown  out.  But  this  does  not  determine 
the  exact  depth  from  which  they  came. 

Drilling  Gas  Wells  in  Lake  Erie — During  the  past  few 
years  a  prohtable  gas  Held  has  been  located  along  the  north 
shore  of  Lake  Erie  in  the  vicinity  of  vSelkirk,  Dunneville  and 
Port  Maitland,  Ontario  The  hrst  wells  were  drilled  but  a 
short  distance  from  shore,  where  the  depth  was  not  over  one 
or  two  feet  and  the  operations  could  be  carried  on  at  any 

145 


FIELD      WORK 


time  of  the  year.    Gradually  the  locations  were  made  further 

from  the  water's  edge, 
until  finally  one  well 
was  drilled  by  the  North 
Shore  Gas  Company 
through  the  ice  one-half 
mile  from  shore.  These 
wells  have  proved  to  be 
of  medium  size,  with  a 
rock  pressure  ranging 
about  two  hundred 
pounds  to  the  square 
inch.  The  gas  comes 
from  the  Medina  gas 
sand  at  a  depth  of  about 
nine  hundred  feet,  and 
is  of  excellent  quality. 
No  tubing  is  used,  but 
the  wells  are  cased  off 
with  5/^-inch  casing  to 
nearly  the  full  depth,  or 
just  above  the  gas  sand. 
At  the  top  of  the  casing  is  placed  a  5^  8-inch  to  2-inch  re- 
ducing cap  through  which  is  hung  a  ^^-inch  water  siphon 
reaching  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  The  siphon  takes  care 
of  any  water  that  might  come  m  the  hole  below  the  casing. 
The  wells  are  "blown  off"  regularly,  same  as  with  those 
located  on  land,  the  employee  being  obliged  to  use  a  boat  in 
summer,  while  in  winter  he  travels  over  the  ice  to  the  differ- 
ent wells.  Concrete  piers  are  built  around  the  wells  to 
protect  them  from  the  ice  in  the  spring  and  the  waves  during 
severe  storms. 

Leases  on  lake  land  are  obtained  from  the  Government, 
to  which  a  royalty  is  paid  of  one-half  cent  per  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  gas  taken  from  the  wells.     The  land  is  divided  into 

146 


Fig.  28— GAS  WELL  IN  LAKE  ERIE 
Located  about  one -half  mile  from  shore  in  twelve 
feel  of  water.  Concrete  pier  is  hardly  visible 
above  water  level.  Note  lead  line  from  well  just 
level  with  water. 


FIELD       WORK 


])locks  from  two  to  three  hundred  feet  square  and  all  wells 
driUed  must  be  located  in  the  lake  beyond  the  low  water 
mark. 

The  well  lead  lines  run  onto  the  land  where  a  drip  takes 
care  of  the  moisture  in  the  gas.  Here  it  is  metered  through 
large  capacity  meters  and  sold  to  pipe  line  companies. 

In  January  of  1912  the  Lake  Shore  Gas  Co.  of  Selkirk, 

Ont.,  made  a  location 
about  one-half  mile  from 
shore,  upon  the  ice 
where  it  was  thought 
the  water  w^as  not  more 
than  three  or  four  feet 
deep.  Through  miscal- 
culation  the  depth 
proved  to  be  twelve  feet. 
As  the  winter  proved  to 
be  a  verv"  cold  one  the 
drilling  w^as  carried  on 
successfully,  and  w^as 
completed  just  before  the 
spring  thaw. 

All  timbers  for  the 
rig  were  moved  to  the 
location  the  same  as  on 
land.  A  standard  rig 
was  used  with  coal  for 
fuel  under  the  boiler. 
Onlv  necessar\"  tools  were  drawn  to  location.  The  boiler  was 
set  with  blocks  under  the  stack  end  and  the  fire  box  end  was 
set  on  a  twenty-foot  joint  of  eight-inch  casing.  The  rig  was 
guyed  with  wires  to  stakes  driven  through  the  ice.  The  depth 
of  the  water  was  not  determined  till  spudding  was  started. 
The  heat  of  the  boiler  soon  melted  the  ice  under  the  lire 
box  but  not  under  the  stack  end.    The  ashes  dropped  through 

147 


I-ig.29—CAS   WELL  IX  LAKE  ERIE 
Located  near  shore  where  the  water  is  but  two  or 
or  three  feet  deep.     Note  the  concrete  pier  with 
sloping  side  toward  direction  of  prevailing  waves. 


FIELD      WORK 


Fig.  30— PUTTING  OUT  A    BURNING   WELL  IN   THE  CANEY  FIELD   BY 

USE  OF  A  HOOD  AND  LEAD   LINE   TO  CARRY  GAS 

TO  ONE  SIDE  FROM   WELL 


the  hole  in  the  ice  into  the  lake.  The  joint  of  eight-inch  casing 
proved  to  be  an  absolute  necessity  in  preventing  the  boiler 
dropping  into  the  water.  The  derrick  timbers  were  not  im- 
bedded in  the  ice  but  placed  on  top  and  proved  to  be  suffi- 
ciently rigid  in  drilling. 

The  drilling  progressed  rapidly  in  calm  weather.  During 
severe  storms  operations  were  stopped  because  of  the  liability 
of  freezing  pipes  and  danger  of  the  derrick  being  blown  over. 
These  shut-downs  were  necessary  to  allow  the  water  around 
the  boiler  fire-box  to  freeze,  as  with  contmued  fire  under  the 
boiler  the  ice  kept  melting  further  away  until  both  the  boiler 
and  joint  of  casing  threatened  to  drop  into  the  lake. 

The  well  was  completed  late  in  February  and  the  boiler 
and  derrick  were  moved  off"  the  ice  under  severe  conditions, 
as  the  spring  thaw  had  set  in.  Several  times  the  teams 
hauling  the  material  broke  through  the  ice,  but  with  all  the 
hardships  experienced  none  of  the  outfit  was  lost. 

148 


FIELD       WORK 


Fig.  31— SAME    WELL   AS   LU,.in.      \  I  lAV   SI[i)\\l\A,   MAST  ERECTED  OX 

CAR  AXD  RUN  OX   TRACK   UP   TO  A    POIXT  WHERE  HOOD 

COULD  BE   LOWERED  OVER  BURXIXG   WELL 


This  particular  well  was  drilled  to  a  depth  of  920  feet 
and  showed  a  flow  of  500,000  cubic  feet  per  day. 

As  soon  as  drilling  was  finished  and  before  the  derrick 
was  removed  from  the  location,  the  construction  of  the  con- 
crete pier  was  started.  This  required  the  building  of  cribbing 
around  the  well  to  keep  out  the  water  while  the  cement  was 
setting.  The  pier  is  built  with  a  sloping  side  facing  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  waves. 

A  two-inch  lead  line  was  laid  on  top  of  the  ice  from  well 
to  land  and  dropped  through  the  ice  to  the  bottom  of  the 
lake. 

Well  Record — A  complete  and  accurate  record  or  log  of 
the  well  while  drilling  should  be  kept  by  either  the  contractor 
or  the  field  man.  All  formations  and  known  sands  should  be 
shown  with  their  proper  names.  The  depth  of  finding  oil, 
gas,  or  water,  and  a  statement  of  the  thickness  of  the  sands, 
with  an  opinion  of  the  quality  of  the  sand,  should  be  included 
in  the  report. 

149 


FIELD      WORK 


i 


I 


Shooting — Shooting  consists  of  exploding  a  charge  of 

nitroglycerin  in  the  well  on  a  level  with    the   gas  vein,  the 

object  being  to  fracture  the  gas-bearing  rock  to 

nf%    allow  a  freer  movement  of  the  gas  from  the  gas 

g?    sand  to  the  well  proper. 

?:?  During    the    process    of    drilling,    accurate 

y^J'    measurements    should    be    taken    with    a    steel 

^    measuring  line,  showing  the  depth  of  the  sand, 

p    the  thickness  of  same,  and  the  amount  of  pocket 

^J:    below  the  sand.     If  the  sand  is  hard  and  the  well 

1''    is  under   1,000,- 

rp.    000  cu.  ft.  capa- 

^;!    city   per    day, 

V?    eighty  quarts  of 

^    nitroglycerin     is 

-d^.^    the  proper  shot, 

>    and  for  soft  sand 

IS    with    the    same 

:^j    size   flow,    forty 

^^    quarts.    In  wells 

5ji    of   larger   flow 

%    than      1,000,000 

^    cu.  ft.   per  day, 

§    it    is    not    ad- 

f    visable   to   shoot   on  account  of   the   danger   in 

yj    lowering  the  shell  into  the  well.    The  shot  should 

^    be  placed  on  top  of  the  proper  amount  of  tin  tubing 

vk    anchorage,  the  length  of  the  latter  being  deter- 

v|  mined  by  the  log  of  the  well  previously  taken. 
The  main  body  of  the  shot  should  rest  opposite 
the  sand  where  there  is  no  w^ater  vein  directly 
underneath  the  sand,  one  shell  should  be  placed 
below  the  bottom  of  the  sand  to  enlarge 
Fig.  32  the  pocket  for  the  accumulations  of  cave-ins, 
sand   etc. 


T 


Fig.  3SSTEEL  LINE  FOR  MEA.SUR- 
ING  DEPTH  OF   WELL 

Note  brake  lever  hanging  from  shaft,  also 
weight  which  keeps  line  taut  while  in  use  and 
assists  in  finding  bottom. 


4 


150 


FIELD       WORK 

In  shooting  a  gas  well,  the  operator  should  be  well 
versed  as  to  the  character  of  the  sand,  as  some  gas  wells  are 
liable  to  be  ruined  by  shooting. 

Nitroglycerin  —  Nitroglycerin  is  a  heavy,  oily,  explo- 
sive liquid  Cy  H5  (No3)3.  The  color  varies  from  water 
white  to  amber,  obtained  by  treating  glycerine  with  a  mix- 
ture of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.    It  produces  by  detonation 


Fig.  34— A    NITROGLYCERIX    MOTOR   TRLCK 


about  fourteen  thousand  times  its  own  volume  of  gas. 
Compared  with  gunpowder  it  is  eight  times  as  powerful 
weight  for  weight,  or  thirteen  times  as  powerful,  volume  for 
volume.  It  is  shipped  in  ten  quart  cans  and  transported 
from  factory  to  field  by  wagon  or  automobile. 

Nitroglycerin    freezes   at   about   55   degrees  fahr.   and 
must  be  thawed  before  lowering  into  the  well  for  shooting. 

151 


FIELD      WORK 

It  is  a  very  dangerous  explosive  to  handle  as  it  requires  due 
care  and  skill  to  prevent  a  premature  explosion. 

After  shooting,  the  empty  cans  should  be  exploded  at 
a  safe  distance  either  by  use  of  a  fuse  and  a  percussion  cap 
or  by  shooting  at  them  with  a  rifle. 

Solidified  Nitroglycerin — This  explosive  is  made  by 
putting  nitroglycerin  through  a  process  whereby  its  nature 
is  changed  from  liquid  to  a  gelatinous  substance  about  the 
consistency  of  soft  putty,  but  more  rubber  like.  It  is  four 
per  cent  more  powerful  than  liquid  nitroglycerin,  weight  for 
weight  It  is  somewhat  insensitive  as  compared  to  the  liquid, 
—this  being  necessary  to  have  it  comply  with  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  regulations.  The  color  varies  with 
the  color  of  the  nitroglycerin  used  in  its  manufacture. 

Solidified  nitroglycerin  is  put  up  in  roimd 
sticks,  wrapped  with  paper  similar  to  dynamite, 
and  is  packed  in  small  boxes.  It  can  be  shipped 
by  freight  to  point  of  destination.  This  is  a 
great  advantage  over  the  liquid  nitroglycerin  as 
it  eliminates  the  necessity  of  hauling  it  by  team 
across  country,  which  is  a  hazardous  operation 
especially  in  season  when  the  roads  are  rough. 

When  loading,  the  sticks  of  solidified  nitro- 
glycerin are  broken  by  hand  and  packed  into  the 
shell  by  the  aid  of  a  wooden  stick.  See  figures 
number  36  and  37. 

In  shooting,  the  shells  must  be  placed  in  the 
hole  one  above  the  other,  that  is,  with  no  anchor- 
age in  between,  othenvise  the  entire  shot  might 
not  explode. 

Fig.  35  After  the  loaded  shells  are  placed  in  the  hole, 

the  firing  is  done  by  dropping  a  "jack  squib"  with  a  lighted 
fuse  attached  to  the  percussion  cap  in  the  interior  of  the 
squib.    The  "jack  squib"  is  filled  with  solidified  nitroglycerin. 

152 


FIELD      WORK 


Torpedo  --  This  con- 
sists of  a  tin  shell  or  tube  a 
few  inches  in  diameter  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the 
well  to  be  shot  and  in 
lengths  of  from  two  to  ten 
feet.  The  end  of  the  shell 
carries  a  small  tin  tube 
soldered  on  to  the  point  to 
fit  over  the  top  of  the  an- 
chorage or  shell  below. 
The  top  shell  carries  a  tiring 


Fig.     36]— PREFARIXG     SOLIDIFIED 

XITROGLYCERIN   TO    LOAD    IX- 

TO  SHELL  FOR  SHOOTING 

GAS   WELL 


Fis-    37  — LOADING    A    SHELL    WITH 
SOLIDIFIED  XITROGLYCERIX 


head  under  which  is  placed 
a  percussion  cap.  The  fiat 
round  plate  on  top  of  the 
firing  head  prevents  the 
go-devil  from  passing  by 
without  firing  the  percus- 
sion cap.  This  flat  plate  is 
quite  necessary  where  there 
is  plenty  of  water  in  the 
hole  which  would  greatly 
decrease  the  speed  and 
force  of  the  go-devil  in  its 
downward  course. 


153 


FIELD      WORK 

Shot  Anchor — Figure  39  shows  the  anchorage 
used  below  the  filled  shells  of  nitroglycerin  or  solid- 
ified nitroglycerin.  It  consists  of  a  tin  tube  of  about 
two  inches  in  diameter  with  a  pointed  end  at  the 
bottom  and  the  top  end  made  to  fit  over  a  tube  of 
like  diameter  at  the  bottom,  of  the  bottom  shell. 


Go-Devil — This  consists  of  a  three  edged 
elongated  piece  of  cast  iron,  pointed  at  one 
end.  It  weighs  about  twenty  pounds  and  is 
made  of  cast  iron  so  that  it  will  be  entirely 
broken  up  at  the  instant  of  exploding  the  v 
shot  and  not  come  out  of  the  hole  in  large  Pig-  ss 
pieces  or  clog  in  the  hole. 

After  placing  the  loaded  shells  in  the 
hole  at  the  proper  place  the  go-devil  is 
dropped  and  explodes  the  shot. 


Fig.  39 


Jack  Squib — This  is  used  to  explode  the  shot 
in  the  hole.  It  consists  of  a  small  tin  tube  pointed 
at  one  end  and  filled  with  solidified  nitroglycerin 
or  dynamite  with  a  fuse  and  percussion  cap  within 
the  interior.  Before  dropping  in  the  hole  the  end 
of  the  fuse  is  lighted.  The  fuse  is  long  enough  so 
that  the  squib  will  not  explode  before  reaching  the 
position  of  the  loaded  shells  in  the  hole.  It  is  used 
in  firing  solidified  nitroglycerin  shots.  Fig.  40 

Cleaning  Out — After  shooting  and  before  cleaning  out, 
the  well  should  be  allowed  to  stand  over  night  to  allow  for 
the  caving  in  of  the  sand  loosened  by  the  shot.  The  well 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  out  until  the  steel  measuring 
line  can  be  run  to  the  full  depth  of  the  well  prior  to  the  shot. 


154 


FIELD       WORK 


Fig.  41— ANCHOR  RODS  OR  CLAMP 

Used  in  anchoring  the  hibing  to  the  casing 
or  drive  pipe.  This,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
weight  of  the  tubing  in  the  well,  keeps  the  gas 
under  control,  and  in  addition,  expands  the 
rubber  packer,  thereby  preventing  the  leakage 
of  gas  around  it  from  the  portion  of  the  well 
below  the  packer. 


Fig.  4^— PERFORATED  PIPE  OR  TUBING 

Placed  in  the  string  of  tubing  opposite  the  gas  sand.  The  holes  are  }4-inch 
and  drilled  on  four  sides  of  the  pipe  about  one  foot  apart  for  the  full  joint 
length. 


155 


FIELD       WORK 


Tubing  and  Packer — The  gas  conductor  or  tubing  of  a 
gas  well  is  made  of  extra  heavy  pipe  of  from  two  to  four  inches 
in  diameter,  the  size  being  selected 
according  to  the  flow  of  the  well. 
Some  gas  men  believe  that  it  is 
policy  to  use  as  small  a  tubing  down 
to  2-inch,  as  is  possible,  even  though 
it  be  necessary  to  "pull  in"  the  first 
few  joints  when  starting  to  tube  the 
well.  The  idea  of  this  is  that  it  is 
easier  to  get  water  out  of  the  well 
and,  not  being  able  to  drain  the  w^ell 
as  quickly  of  the  gas,  the  life  of  the 
well  would  be  longer. 

A  packer  consists  of  a  steel 
plunger  with  a  rubber  ring  fitting 
close  to  the  walls  of  the  well,  the 
rubber  being  ten  to  twenty  inches 
in  length.  An  anchor  packer  has 
the  tubing  connection  or  thread  on 
the  top  and  bottom,  while  the  disc 
wall  packer  has  tubing  connection 
on  top  only,  the  rubber  being  sup- 
plemented with  a  set  of  jaws  work- 
ing over  a  cone  and  held  in  place  by 
a  spring  and  a  cast  iron  disc.  If  the 
packer  is  an  anchor  packer,  it  is 
placed  a  few  joints  off  the  bottom 
of  the  tubing  and  is  anchored  in 
place,  after  the  tubing  rests  on  the 
bottom  of  the  well,  by  the  weight 
of  the  tubing  on  top  of  the  packer  with  the  assistance  of 
anchor  irons  and  rods  pulling  the  tubing  downward  on  the 
surface.  The  amount  of  tubing  underneath  the  packer  is 
dependent  upon  the  height  of  the  sand  above  the  bottom  of 

156 


Fig.  43— DISC  WALL 
PACKER 


FIELD       WORK 


the  well  and  the  location  of  the  hard  strata 
in  which  it  is  desired  to  set  the  packer 
above  the  gas  sand.  The  joint  of  tubing 
which  would  come  opposite  the  gas  sand  is 
perforated  with  34-inch  holes  drilled  through 
the  pipe  the  full  length  of  the  joint,  with 
about  a  foot  space  between  perforations 

The  disc  wall  packer  is  set  on  the 
bottom  of  the  first  joint  of  tubing  that  is 
let  into  the  well.  When  the  packer  reaches 
the  proper  distance  or  opposite  the  location 
desired  to  set  the  packer,  a  short  piece  of 
pipe — J^-inch  pipe  preferred —  is  dropped 
through  the  tubing.  This  breaks  the  disc 
in  the  packer,  thereby  releasing  the  spring 
and  jaws,  after  which  the  packer  will  sup- 
port the  tubing  without  use  of  elevators 
and  the  tubing  can  be  anchored  down  on 
the  surface  without  liability  of  packer 
dropping.  The  disc  wall  packer  can  be 
pulled  out  of  the  well  and  a  new  disc  in- 
serted in  the  packer  if  it  is  desired  to  lower 
the  packer  below  its  first  location  or  to  use 
the  packer  again  in  another  well. 

It  is  a  good  idea  to  use  a  3-foot  nipple 
and  collar  just  above  the  packer  in  the 
string  of  tubing  with  a  right  and  left  hand 
thread,  so  if  at  any  time  in  the  future  it  is  desired  to  pull 
the  tubing  and  the  packer  has  become  stuck,  the  whole 
string  of  tubing  can  be  turned  at  the  left  hand  thread  and 
pulled. 

In  event  of  the  packer  leaking  after  being  anchored  and 
the  well  is  shut  in,  blow^  off  well  and  put  in  one-half  bushel  of 
wheat  and  four  or  five  pounds  of  shot  on  top  of  the  wheat. 
The  shot  will  weigh  down  the  wheat  and  assist  in  making  the 


Fig.  44 — Sectional 
View  of  Gas  Well 
with    3-in.    Tubing 


and     % 
Siphon. 


Water 


15< 


FIELD      WORK 


i^^' 


packer  tight.  If  there  is  no  water  on  top  of  the  packer,  put  in 
two  or  three  barrels  of  water.  After  being  allowed  to  stand 
two  or  three  hours,  the  well  can  be  shut  in  to  determine  the 
effectiveness  of  the  operation. 

All  tubing  should  be  painted  before  placing  in  the  well, 
not  forgetting  tong  marks  after  it  is  set  up. 

In  wells  of  10,000,000  cubic  feet  daily  capacity  and 
larger,  where  a  long  string  of  casing  has  been  used  and  the 
pressure  does  not  exceed  300  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  the 
casing  itself  may  be  used  as  tubing. 

When  a  gas  well 
is  overhauled  (i.  e., 
the  casing,  tubing, 
and  water  pipe  are 
pulled  and  renewed), 
it  is  good  policy  to 
test  the  well  before 
and  after  the  work. 

Often  an  old  gas 
well,  whose  flow  and 
rock  pressure  have 
dropped,  can  be  shot 
to  advantage.  This 
requires  the  pulling  of 
the  tubing  and  water 
pipe  prior  to  shooting. 
It  is  advisable  to 
shoot  the  well  with  at 
least  100  feet  of  water 
on  top  of  the  shot. 
Dry   shooting    is   less 

Fi,.4o-CAPPING  A   LARGE  GAS  WELL  ^^^Ctive    OU    the    Saud 

IN   THE  CANEY  FIELD  {1907)  thoUgh   mOrC    SpCCtaC- 

Open  Flow  Capacity  of  Well.  80,000,000  ulSLT. 
158 


FIELD       WORK 


TUBING 


Nominal 

Nominal 

Number 

Outside 

Inside 

Thickness 

Weight 

of 

Diameter  of 

Diameter 

Inch 

per  Foot 

Threads 

Couplings 

Inches 

Pounds 

per  Inch 

Inches 

1 

.134 

1.67 

IIH 

1.687 

iH 

.140 

2.24 

113^ 

2.062 

Wi 

.145 

2.68 

113^ 

2.375 

2 

.154 

4.00 

113/2 

2.937 

2  patent 

.174 

4.50 

11^ 

2.937 

23^2 

.204 

5.74 

113^ 

3.5 

3 

.217 

7.54 

11^ 

4.062 

3H 

.226 

9.90 

113^  and  8 

4.687 

4 

.237 

10.66 

10      and  8 

5.187 

6 

.280 

18.76 

8 

7.343 

Elevators — These  are  used  for 
letting  in  and  pulling  out,  drive 
pipe,  casing,  tubing,  and  water 
pipe.  The  size  shown  in  Fig.  46 
is  for  2-inch  tubing.  In  using 
elevators  always  see  that  both 
elevator  links  are  caught  in  the 
tackle  block  hook. 

Dry  Holes — In  the  event  of 
drilling  a  dry  hole  and  striking 
the  gas  or  oil  sand,  it  is  very 
essential  to  plug  the  hole  just 
above  the  sand  with  either  a 
rubber  or  wooden  plug.  If  wood 
is  used,  dry  pine  is  the  best,  as  it  will  swell  soon  after 
being  immersed  in  the  water  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole 
and  make  a  perfectly  tight  fit. 


FIk-  4'J—l^l-i^yATORS 


159 


FIELD      WORK 


160 


FIELD       WORK 


\/  \r().\ 


i 

m^ 

^^^B*' 

H^^l^'^'9 

Fig. 


WOOD  DRY  HOLE 
PLUGS 


"rr^fiM^  Well     Connections      Afar     a 

new  gas  well  has  been  shut  in  and 
anchored  it  should  be  blown  off  a 
day  or  two  later  and  the  anchor 
rods  re-tightened.  In  connecting 
up  a  "tubing  blow-off"  on  a  gas 
well,  the  blow-off  should  point  at 
right  angles  from  the  tubing  with 
no  angles  between  the  blow-off 
opening  and  the  tubing.  Otherwise 
the  reaction  of  the  gas  issuing  from 
the  blow-off  will  tend  to  force  the 
blow-off  connection  around  and 
may  result  in  a  serious  accident. 

Water  Propositions — With  gas 
wells  of  medium  size  making  water, 
use  a  54-inch  "siphon"  or  water  line 
hanging  from  the  top  inside  of  the 

tubing  and  with  a  "blow-off"  on  the  top  end.     The  bottom 

of   the    "siphon"    should    be    plugged    and  hung  one  foot 

from  the  bottom  of  the   well.      Perforate  the  joint  of  pipe 

opposite   the   main    gas    sand    with 

3^-inch    holes,    drill    through     both 

sides    of    the    pipe    and    space    one 

foot    apart.      If    blown    often,     this 

method    keeps    the     water    out    of 

the   well. 

Where     there     is     no    "floating 

sand"  in  the  well,  the  same  method 

can  be  installed  with  1-inch  working 

barrel  and  anchorage  on  bottom  of 

^^-inch,    using     the     ^^-inch    as    a 

sucker   rod   as  well  as   a    conductor 

for    the    water.     The    top    of     the 

Q  /   .       1  111  1  1  1  ^'g-  -^•'' — ^(^^  Well  "shut  in"  rt-ii>l\ 

^-mch        should       work       through        a  to  conned  wUh    main  line 


161 


FIELD      WORK 

stuffing  box  on  the  top  of  the  tubing  with  a  small 
walking  beam  and  gearing,  using  a  horse  for  power,  or 
a  two  to  four  h.  p.  gas  engine. 


Fig.  50— PUMPING  POWER  FOR  PUMPIXG   OIL   WELLS  OR 
WATER  FROM  GAS   WELLS 

In   equipping  gas  wells  with   3^-inch  water  pumping 
outfits  where  the  size  of  tubing  is  over  3-inch,  a  cast  iron 

162 


FIELD       WORK 

spider  can  be  used  on  every  second  or  third  joint.  The  spider 
fits  loosely  in  the  tubing  and  is  made  to  slip  over  the  54-inch, 
but  not  large  enough  to  slip  by  a  ^^-inch  collar.  This  method 
prevents  the  ^-inch  from  weaving  while  pumping. 

There  are  special  made  gas  pumps  which  can  be  used  in 
connection  with  this  ^ 4-inch  without  wasting  any  gas. 

With  the  blowing  out  method,  water  can  be  raised 
through  a  ^.^-inch  "siphon"  from  a  depth  of  1200  feet  with 
a  75-pound  gas  pressure,  and  from  a  depth  of  1500  feet 
with  125-pound  gas  pressure. 

Cement  will  not  set  in  a  heavy  mineral  water  in  a  gas 
well.  A  small  gas  well  cannot  be  properly  "blown  ofT"  and 
cleaned  of  water  where  casing  is  used  in  place  of  tubing. 


Fig.  51—PUMPIXG 
HEAD 


Pumping  Powers — The  pumping 
power  is  adapted  for  pumping  small 
oil  wells  in  isolated  localities.  It  is 
also  used  extensively  for  pumping 
water  from  gas  wells  down  to  a 
depth  of  3,500  feet  by  using  the  ^4- 
inch  water  line  for  both  tubing  and 
sucker  rods.  With  a  friction  drum  at- 
tached to  the  power,  it  is  possible  to 
pull  the  tubing  and  sucker  rods  from 
wells  2,600  feet  in  depth.  With  a 
larger  pulley  on  the  engine  shaft, 
which  will  increase  the  speed,  the 
drum  may  also  be  used  for  bailing. 

Pumping  Heads — Pumping  heads 
are  clamped  to  the  tubing  and  are 
used  for  pumping  water  from  gas 
wells,  using  either  gas,  air  or  steam 
under  pressure  for  power.    The  water 

163 


FIELD      WORK 


is  pumped  through  a  S/^'-inch  Hne  same  as  with  a  pump- 
ing power.  The  heads  for  steam  are  12  inches  in  dia- 
meter, 34  inches  long,  with  a  30-inch  stroke;  for  air  and  gas 
they  are  12  inches  in  diameter,  36  inches  long,  with  a  32-inch 
stroke. 

Heads  can  be  operated  on  pressures  ranging  from  40  lb. 
to  400  lb.,  and  will  pump  wells  any  depth  down  to  2600 
feet. 

Capping — This  operation  merely  consists  of  placing  a 
gate  on  the  tubing  or  casing  and  "shutting  in"  the  well. 

If,  in  drilHng  a  gas  well,  a  volume  greater  than  35,000,000 
cubic  feet  daily  capacity  is  anticipated,  and  the  conditions 
of  the  well  are  fav^orable  for  casing  to  be  used  in  place  of 
tubing,  screw  a  gate  on  the  casing  and  reduce  the  size  of  the 
drill  or  bit  just  before  drilling  into  the  gas  vein.  If  reducing 
the  size  of  the  bit  is  objectionable,  use  a  swedge  nipple  and 
a  gate  one  size  larger  than  the  casing. 

Gas  Well  Drip — A  gas  well  should  not  be  connected  with- 
out using  a  drip  near  the  well,  whether  the  gas  be  absolutely 
dry  or  not. 

This  drip  should  be  placed  from  three  to  four  joints  of 
pipe  distant  from  the  well.  The  length  of  the  lead  and  tail 
of  the  drip  is  dependent  entirely  upon  the  amount  of  water 
in  the  well.  For  a  2-inch  or  3-inch  lead  line  use  6-inch  pipe 
in  the  drip.  For  a  4-inch  lead  line  use  8-inch  pipe  in  the 
drip,  and  for  a  6-inch  lead  line  use  10-inch  pipe  in  the  drip. 
A  stop  cock  should  never  be  used  on  the  blow-off  of  the  drip. 


164 


FIELD      WORK 


Fig.  52 — Gas  Pump  for  Pumping  Water 
from  Gas  Well  through  ^i-inch  Pipe,  using 
the  %-inch  as  a  Sucker  Rod  and  Tubing 
for  Water  Discharge  Combined. 


TO   WELL 


Blow  off. 
Fig.  53— GAS   WELL  DRIP 
165 


FIELD      WORK 

Gas  Well  Lead  Lines — A  gas  well  lead  line  is  a  pipe  line 
connecting  the  well  with  the  main  line.  Where  there  is 
liability  of  the  pressure  in  the  field  line  or  main  line  exceeding 
the  pressure  on  the  gas  well,  a  check  valve  should  be  placed 
on  the  lead  Hne.  Stopcocks  should  not  be  used  on  gas  well 
lead  lines. 

Care  of  Gas  Wells — After  a  gas  well  has  been  completed 
and  it  is  desired  to  move  the  derrick,  a  "three-pole  derrick" 
or  "gin  poles"  can  be  erected,  or  a  single  mast  or  gin  pole 
can  be  used  in  case  of  emergency,  for  pulling  tubing  or 
water  pipe. 


Fig.  55 — Walking  Beam  Method  of  Pumping 
Water  from,  a  Gas  Well.  Power  is  furnished  by 
S  h.  p.  gas  engine  and  the  water  is  pumped 
through  the  ^-inch  siphon.  The  ^-inch  pipe  is 
used  as  a  sucker  rod  and  tubing. 


Fig.  54— CAS    WELL    DRIP 


166 


FIELD      WORK 


The  common  method  of  expeUing  water  from  the  well 
by  blowing  the  gas  into  the  atmosphere  is  an  extravagant 
waste  of  gas.  Wherever  it  is  possible,  the  Ji^-inch  siphon 
water  line  with  pump  attachment  should  be  used. 

A  gas  well  cannot  be  blown  off  and  cleared  of  water 
where  casing  is  used  in  place  of  tubing. 

In  the  event  of  a  gas  well  constructed  with  a  ^-inch 
siphon  becoming  flooded,  the  siphon  can  be  pulled  a  few 
joints  and  the  well  shut  in;  then,  after  an  accumulation  of 
pressure,  an  attempt  can  be  made  to  raise  the  water.  If  the 
^-inch  pipe,  when  opened,  does  not  make  a  showing  of 
water,  it  should  be  pulled  one  or  two  points  more  and  the 
process  repeated  until  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  well  is 
determined.  After  each  attempt  to  raise  the  water,  the  well 
should  be  capped  and  allowed  to  stand  long  enough  to  permit 
the  gas  pressure  to  raise  to  at  least  50  lb.  After  the  well 
begins  to  throw  water  and  the  water  level  is  lowered  to  the 
bottom  of  the  ^^-inch  pipe,  the  pipe  should  be  lowered  half 

a  joint  and  the  operation  re- 
peated until  the  full  length  of 
the  54-inch  pipe  is  back  in  the 
well.  This  method  will  often 
save  the  expense  of  erecting  a 
derrick  and  bailing. 

When  a  gas  sand  becomes 
coated  with  paraffine  or  salt 
the  only  sure  method  of  clean- 
ing out  the  well  is  by  the 
"steaming  process."  This 
merely  consists  of  turning  live 
steam  at  about  125  lb.  pres- 
sure, into  the  3_^'-inch  siphon  and  up  through  the  tubing 
into  the  atmosphere.  The  boiler  should  be  placed  on 
the  windward  side  and  about  two  hundred  feet  from 
the  well. 


Fig.  56— EXTRA   HEAVY   SWING 
CHECK   VALVE 


167 


FIELD      WORK 

It  is  policy  to  "blow  off"  gas  wells  of  medium  size, 
especially  those  making  water,  in  summer  as  well  as  in 
winter,  even  though  the  well  be  closed  in,  except  where 
pumping  apparatus  has  been  installed  to  free  the  well  of 
water.  It  is  not  necessary  to  blow  a  well  as  often  in 
summer  when  the  well  is  shut  in  as  it  is  in  the  winter  or 
when  feeding  into  the  line. 

In  the  event  of  a  leak  developing  in  the  tubing  of  a  gas 
well,  the  tubing  should  be  pulled  and  tested  under  pressure 
on  the  ground. 

Salt  Water  Propositions — Where  gas  wells  are  troubled 
with  salt,  which  frequently  clogs  the  tubing  to  such  an 
extent  that  gas  cannot  pass  through  it,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  dissolve  the  salt,  which  is  done  by  pouring  water  down 
the  well.  To  admit  fresh  water,  a  "swaged  water  jug" 
which  is  made  of  a  piece  of  6/^-inch  casing  about  three  feet 
long,  swagged  at  both  ends  to  two  inches  is  used.  This  is 
screwed  into  the  top  of  the  tubing,  and  holds  about  four 
and  one  half  gallons  of  water. 

A  bailing  machine  is  then  placed  in  position  to  agitate 
the  fresh  water  in  the  tubing  in  order  to  dissolve  the  salt 
and  bail  it  from  the  well. 

It  often  happens  that  ten  or  fifteen  joints  of  tubing, 
aggregating  200  to  300  feet,  will  fill  up  solid  with  salt. 

When  fresh  water  fails  to  dissolve  the  salt,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  pull  the  tubing  and  to  "shoot"  the  well;  that  is 
the  sand  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  Usually  from  20  to  60 
quarts  of  nitro-glycerin  are  used,  depending  upon  the  thick- 
ness of  the  sand. 

The  well  is  then  cleaned,  re-tubed  and  treated  with 
fresh  water.  From  30  to  100  gallons  of  fresh  water  is  con- 
sidered a  "dose"  and  is  allowed  to  remain  from  twenty  to 
twenty -four  hours  on  the  salt  before  blowing  out.    This  has 

168 


FIELD      WORK 

the  effect  of  dissolving  the  salt  and  washing  the  gas  sand. 
It  requires  extreme  care  in  handling  to  prevent  the  well 
clogging  and  being  ruined. 

In  certain  localities  where  the  gas  is  found  in  the  Clinton 
sand  it  is  found  necessary  to  "water"  a  well  twice  weekly, 
and  then  it  is  only  possible  to  keep  them  in  commission 
about  half  the  time,  while  others  only  require  attention  once 
or  twice  a  month. 


Fig.dr—WATKRIXG  A   GAS    WELL 


FIELD      WORK 


wm^mfP^mf.3 


170 


FIELD      WORK 


171 


FIELD      WORK 

The  Clinton  Sand  which  extends  from  Hocking  County 
on  the  south  to  Lake  Erie  on  the  north,  is  not  only  one  of 
the  most  prolific  gas  sands  ever  developed,  but  probably 
contains  more  salt  than  any  other  field.  This  field  is  different 
from  many  others  in  that  it  contains  but  one  paying  gas 
formation. 

Use  of  Abandoned  Gas  Wells — Many  times  gas  wells 
are  abandoned  even  though  they  can  supply  enough  gas  for 
a  few  consumers.  It  is  often  profitable  for  land  owners, 
where  gas  wells  are  abandoned  on  their  property,  to  purchase 
from  the  gas  company  abandoning  the  weU,  the  drive  pipe 
casing,  and  tubing,  in  order  that  it  may  be  left  in  the  well, 
thereby  furnishing  enough  gas  for  one  or  more  consumers. 

Sometimes  after  w^ells  are  abandoned  and  become  filled 
with  water,  gas  continues  to  bubble  through  the  water.  To 
save  this  construct  a  large  galvanized  iron  drum  and  place 
over  the  well.  The  drum  should  be  set  in  a  water  filled  pit 
surrounding  the  well  with  guide  posts,  the  same  as  a  gas 
holder  to  allow  the  drum  or  tank  to  raise  with  increasing 
volume  of  gas.  Connection  can  be  made  with  the  top  of  tlie 
drum  by  a  one-inch  rubber  hose  to  an  iron  pipe  leading  to 
the  consumer's  house.  This  method  will  always  insure  a 
low  pressure,  as  too  much  pressure  will  cause  the  drum  to 
raise  until  the  gas  breaks  the  water  seal  and  escapes  into  the 
atmosphere.  To  increase  the  pressure,  place  a  weight  on 
top  of  the  drum.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  while  the 
leaking  gas  from  an  abandoned  well  might  not  run  a  stove 
or  furnish  enough  gas  for  one  consumer  continuously,  the 
gas  could  be  collected  in  the  drum  during  the  twenty -four 
hours  in  sufficient  amount  for  occasional  use. 


172 


PART    1()UI{ 

Measurement  of  Gas  Wells 

BASIS  OF  MEASUREMENT  OF  NATURAL  GAS— 
PITOT  TUBE  FOR  TEvSTING  AND  OPEN-FLOW 
TESTING  OF  GAS  WELLS  —  MINUTE  PRESSURE 
TESTING  —  ROCK  PRESSURE  —  WORKING 
CAPACITY    OF    GAS    WELLS. 

Basis  of  Measurement  of  Natural  Gas — The  value  of 
natural  gas  lies  almost  wholly  in  its  ability  to  produce  heat, 
and  this  is  directly  proportional  to  the  weight.  For  example, 
two  pounds  of  a  given  quantity  of  gas  will  produce  just  twice 
the  heat  that  one  pound  will.  It  is  not  convenient,  however, 
to  deal  with  gas  in  units  of  weight,  and  hence  it  is  the  uni- 
v^ersal  custom  to  speak  of  gas  quantities  as  so  many  volume 
units,  such  as  cubic  feet  or  cubic  meters. 

Gas  being  an  elastic  fluid  and  having  the  property  of 
entirely  filling  any  vessel  in  which  it  may  be  contained,  the 
actual  weight  of  gas  present  in  any  given  volume  depends 
not  only  on  the  extent  of  that  volume,  but  also  upon  the 
pressure  and  temperature  of  the  gas.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, when  speaking  of  any  volume  of  gas,  to  have  a  defmite 
understanding  of  the  pressure  and  temperature  under  which 
the  volume  is  measured. 

It  has  long  been  the  custom  for  natural  gas  men  to  con- 
sider 60  deg.  falir.  as  the  standard  temperature  basis  of 
measurement,  and  four  ounces  (  =  0.25  lb.)  per  square  inch 
above  an  assumed  mean  atmospheric  pressure  of  14.4  pounds 
per  square  inch,  as  the  standard  pressure  basis.  These  values 
are  equivalent  to  520  (  =  460  plus  60)  fahrenheit  degrees, 
and  14.65  (  =  14.40  plus  0.25)  pounds  per  square  inch  above 
the  absolute  gross  temperature  and  pressure,  respectively. 

173 


MEASUREMENT         OF         GAS         WELLS 

Throughout  all  that  follows  in  this  hook,  unless  otherwise 
specifically  stated,  it  is  to  he  understood  that  the  ahove  mentioned 
standards  of  measurement  are  to  apply. 

The  specific  gravity  of  gas  as  referred  to  air,  and  its 
flowing  temperature,  also  enter  into  the  computations  in 
certain  formulas  and  tables  to  follow,  and  these  will  always 
be  considered  equal  to  0.60  specific  gravity  and  60  deg.  fahr. 
(  =  520  degrees  absolute)  respectively,  unless  otherwise 
stated. 

Pitot  Tube  for  Testing  the  Open  Flow  of  Gas  Wells— 
The  most  accurate  way  of  testing  the  flow  of  a  gas  well  is  by 
means  of  the  pitot  tube.  This  is  an  instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  velocity  of  flowing  gas  by  means  of  its  momentum. 
It  usually  consists  of  a  small  tube,  one  end  bent  at  right 
angles,  which  is  inserted  in  the  flowing  gas,  just  inside  the 
pipe  or  tubing  and  between  one-third  and  one-fourth  of  the 
pipe's  diameter  from  the  outer  edge.  The  plane  of  the 
opening  in  the  tube  is  held  at  right  angles  to  the  flowing  gas. 
At  a  convenient  distance,  varying  from  one  to  tw^o  feet,  an 
inverted  siphon  or  U-shaped  gauge  is  attached  to  the  other 
end,  which  is  usually  half  filled  with  mercury  or  water.  If 
the  flow  is  over  five  pounds  to  the  square  inch  a  pressure 
gauge  is  required. 

In  small  sized  wells  of  not  over  four  million  feet,  a  12-inch 
U  gauge  with  water  can  be  used.  In  wells  from  four  to  fifteen 
million  feet,  use  mercury  in  a  12-inch  U  gauge,  from  fifteen  to 
thirty-five  million  feet  use  a  50-pound  spring  gauge.  Above 
thirty-five  milhon  feet  use  a  100-pound  spring  gauge.  These 
foregoing  figures  are  all  based  on  a  6-inch  hole. 

For  convenience,  a  scale  graduated  from  the  center  in 
inches  and  tenths  is  attached  between  the  two  limbs  of  the 
U  gauge.  The  distance  above  and  below  this  center  line  at 
which  the  liquid  stands  in  the  gauge  should  be  added,  the 
object  being  to  determine  the  exact  distance  between  the  high 
and  the  low  side  of  the  fluid  in  inches  and  tenths  of  inches. 

174 


MEASUREMENT 


O  F 


GAS 


WELLS 


The  top  joint  of  tubing  or  casing 
should  be  free  from  fittings  for  a  distance 
of  ten  feet  below  the  mouth  of  the  well 
where  the  test  is  made.  The  test  should 
not  be  made  in  a  collar  or  gate  or  at  the 
mouth  of  any  fitting.  The  well  should 
be  blown  off  for  at  least  three  hours  prior 
to  making  the  test. 

Having  ascertained  the  velocity  pres- 
sure of  the  gas  flowing  from  the  well  tub- 
ing in  inches  of  water,  inches  of  mercury 
or  pounds  per  square  inch,  as  outlined 
above,  the  corresponding  flow  is  given  in 
the  following  table.  The  quantities  of  gas 
stated  in  the  table  are  based  on  4-ounce 
pressure  or  14.65  pounds  per  square  inch 
absolute,  60  deg.  fahr.  flowing  tempera- 
ture, 60  deg. 
fahr.  storage 
temperature.  /^ 

and  0.6  specific 
gravity  (air  be- 
ing 1.00).  If  the 
specific  gravity 
is  other  than  0.6 
the  flow  should 
be  multiplied  by 


0.6 

\  Sp.gr.ofgas. 


Fig.    60  —  TESTIXG 

GAS  WELL  WITH 

A   PITOT  TUBE 


For  flowing 
temperature  above 
or  below  60  deg. 
fahr.,  deduct  or 
add  1%  for  each 
ten  degrees,  re- 
spectively. 


175 


MEASUREMENT         OF         GAS         WELLS 


PITOT  TUBE  TABLE  FOR  TESTING  OF  GAS  WELLS 

Table  No.  1 — Discharge  of  Gas  of  0.6  specific  gravity  from  gas  well 
tubing  of  different  sizes  in  twenty-four  hours. 

{By  F.  H.  Oliphant) 


Pressure 

Discharge  in  Cubic  Fei 

iT 

In  Inches 

In  Inches 

of 
Mercury 

In  Lb. 

1-inch 

2-inch 

3-inch 

4-inch 

of  Water 

per 
Sq. Inch 

Tubing 

Tubing 

Tubing 

Tubing 

.10 

11,880 

47,520 

106,920 

190,080 

.20 

17,136 

68,544 

154,224 

274,176 

.30 

20,568 

82.272 

185,112 

329,088 

.40 

23.520 

94,080 

211,680 

376,320 

.50 

26,544 

106,176 

238,896 

424.704 

.60 

29,112 

116,448 

262,008 

465.792 

.7 

31.440 

125,760 

282,960 

503,040 

.8 

33.624 

134,496 

302,616 

537,984 

.9 

35,640 

142,560 

320,760 

570,240 

1.0 

37,320 

149,280 

335.880 

597,120 

1.25 

41,712 

166,848 

375,408 

667,392 

1.5 

45,960 

183,840 

413.640 

735,360 

1.75 

.12 

49,680 

198,720 

447,120 

794.880 

2.0 

.147 

53,136 

212,544 

478,224 

850.176 

2.5 

.184 

59,400 

237,600 

534,600 

950,400 

3.0 

.22 

.108 

65,088 

260,352 

585,792 

1,041,408 

3.5 

.257 

.126 

70,272 

281.088 

632,448 

1,124,352 

4.0 

.294 

.144 

75,120 

300,480 

676,080 

1,201,920 

4.5 

.331 

.162 

79,704 

318,810 

717,336 

1.275,264 

5.0 

.368 

.18 

84,000 

336,000 

756,000 

1,344,000 

6. 

.441 

.216 

92,016 

368.060 

828,144 

1.472,256 

7. 

.515 

.252 

99,360 

397,440 

894,240 

1,589,760 

8. 

.588 

.288 

106,272 

425.088 

956,448 

1,700.352 

9. 

.662 

.324 

112,656 

450,624 

1,013,904 

1,802,496 

10. 

.736 

.36 

118,800 

475,200 

1,069,200 

1,900,800 

11. 

.8 

.396 

125,160 

500,640 

1,126,440 

2.002,560 

12. 

.88 

.432 

130,128 

520,512 

1,171,152 

2.082.048 

1.02 

.5 

138,960 

555,840 

1,250,640 

2.223.360 

1.52 

.75 

170,280 

681,120 

1,532,520 

2,724,480 

2.03 

1.00 

196,680 

786,720 

1,770.120 

3,146,880 

2.54 

1.25 

219,960 

879,840 

1,979,640 

3,519,360 

3.05 

1.5 

240,720 

962,880 

2,166,480 

3,851,520 

3.56 

1.75 

259,920 

1,039,680 

2,339.280 

4,158,720 

4.07 

2.00 

272,640 

1,090,560 

2,453,760 

4,362,240 

4.57 

2.25 

294,600 

1,178,400 

2,651,400 

4,713,600 

5.08 

2.50 

310,800 

1,243,200 

2,797,200 

4,972,800 

5.59 

2.75 

321,000 

1.284,000 

2,889,000 

5.136,000 

6.10 

3. 

340,200 

1,360,800 

3,061,800 

5.443,200 

176 


MEASUREMENT         OF         GAS        WELLS 


PITOT  TUBE  TABLE—iCoulinned) 


Pressure 

Discharge  ix  C 

UBic  Feet 

In  Inches  In  Inches 
of                of 
Water      Mercury 

In  Lb. 

1-inch 

2-inch 

3-inch 

4-inch 

per 
Sq. Inch 

Tubing 

Tubing 

Tubing 

Tubing 

6.61 

3.25 

354,120 

1,416,480 

3,187,080 

5,665,920 

7.11 

3.50 

367,680 

1.470,720 

3,309,120 

5,882,880 

7.62 

3.75 

380,400 

1.521,600 

3,423,600 

6,086,400 

8.13 

4.00 

392,880 

1,571.520 

3,535,920 

6,286.080 

8.64 

4.25 

405,000 

1,620,000 

3,645,000 

6,480,000 

9.15 

4.50 

416,640 

1,666,560 

3,749,760 

6,666,240 

9.65 

4.75 

428,280 

1,713.120 

3.854.520 

6.852,480 

1     10.16 

5.00 

439.920 

1,759,680 

3.959,280 

7,038,720 

12.20 

6. 

476,040 

1,904,160 

4.284,360 

7,616,640 

7. 

517.320 

2.069,280 

4.655,880 

8,277,120 

8. 

542,400 

2.169,600 

4,881,600 

8,678,400 

9. 

569,640 

2,278,650 

5,126,760 

9,114,240 

10. 

595,560 

2.382,240 

5,360,040 

9,528,960 

1 

11. 

621,960 

2,487.840 

5,597,640 

9,951.360 

12. 

642,600 

2,570,400 

5,783,400 

10,281,600 

13. 

664,680 

2,658,720 

5,982,120 

10.634,880 

14. 

683,880 

2,735,520 

6,154,920 

10,942,080 

15. 

703,080 

2.812.320 

6,327,720 

11,249,280 

16. 

721,080 

2.884.320 

6,489,720 

11.537,280 

17. 

738,120 

2.952,480 

6,643,080 

11,809.920 

18. 

753,960 

3,015,840 

6,785,640 

12,063.360 

20. 

785,520 

3,142,080 

7,069,680 

12.568,320 

22. 

803,280 

3.213,120 

7.229,520 

12,852,480 

25. 

854,880 

3.419.520 

7.693,920 

13,678,080 

30. 

910,680 

3.642,720 

8,196.120 

14,570.880 

35. 

960,960 

3,843,840 

8,648.640 

15.375.360 

40. 

1,006,680 

4.026,720 

9,060,120 

16,106,880 

45. 

1,046,520 

4,186,080 

9,418,680 

16,744,320 

50. 

1,081,920 

4,327.680 

9.737,280 

17,310,720 

60. 

1,137.120 

4,548,480 

10,234,080 

18,193,920 

75. 

1,223,400 

4,893,600 

11,010,600 

19,574.400 

1 

90. 

1,304,400 

5,217,600 

11,739,600 

20.870.400 

100. 

1,336,920 

5,347,680 

12,032.280 

21,390,720 

Table  Xo.  2 — Multipliers  for  pipe  diameters  other  than  given  in 
the  above  tables.  For  any  dilTerent  sized  pipe  apply  the  multiplier 
to  the  figures  given  in  the  above  table  for  "one  inch  tubing." 


lH-inch=  2.25 
2^-inch=  6.25 
4M-inch=18. 
4^-inch=21.39 


5  - 

6  - 

6h- 


inch=25. 
inch  =31. 64 
inch=36. 
inch=39. 
inch  =43. 9 


8  -inch=  64. 
8i^-inch=  68. 

9  -inch=  81. 
10  -inch-  100. 
12     -inch=144. 


177 


MEASUREMENT 


O  F 


GAS 


WELLS 


Minute  Pressure  Testing  of  Gas  Wells — It  has  often 
been  the  practice  to  measure  the  capacity  of  natural  gas  wells 
by  quickly  shutting  a  gate  or  valve  and  noting  the  pressure 
on  a  gauge  at  the  end  of  each  minute.  Usually  the  pressure 
at  the  end  of  the  first  minute  is  used  to  approximate  the 
volume. 

Before  making  this  test  the  well  should  be  blown  off  for 
at  least  three  hours. 

The  following  table  gives  the  volume  in  different  sized 
tubing  in  lengths  of  100  feet,  which  is  followed  by  a  table  of 
multipliers  for  different  pressures  for  one  minute  and  for 
twenty -four  hours. 


VOLUME  OF  TUBING 

Table  Number  1 


Fig.   61. 


Diameter 
of  Tubing 
in  Inches 

Volume  in 
Cu.  Ft.  of 
100  Feet 
of  Tubing 

Diameter 
of  Tubing 
in  Inches 

Volume  in 
Cu.  Ft.  of 
100  Feet 
of  Tubing 

1 

0.55 

5^ 

17.26 

2 

2.18 

6 

19.63 

3 

4.91 

6M 

21.31 

3M 

5.76 

Q% 

23.94 

4 

8.73 

7M 

28.67 

4M 

-       9.85 

8 

34.91 

5 

13.64 

8K 

37.12 

53/16 

14.14 

9^ 

50.53 

5M 

15.03 

10 

54.54 

The  best  gas  well  is  one  which,  at  the  highest  pressure, 
will  discharge  the  greatest  quantity  of  gas.  The  working 
capacity  of  any  well  can  be  tested  by  closing  in  the  pressure 
by  a  gate  at  a  length  of  half  a  joint  or  more  of  pipe  from  the 
open  end.  A  gauge  connected  by  a  small  pipe  back  of  the 
gate  will  record  the  increased  pressure.  The  flow  can  thus  be 
measured  at  various  back  pressures  by  testing  the  open  flow 
with  a  pitot  tube  as  the  pressure  inside  the  well  is  increased. 

178 


MEASUREMENT 


O  F 


GAS 


WELLS 


MINUTE  PRESSURE  OF  GAS  WELLS 

Table  Number  2 

Opposite  the  gauge  pressure  are  found  the  multipliers  for  one 
minute  and  for  twenty-four  hours.  All  figures  are  given  at  14.65 
pounds,  or  atmospheric  pressure  14.4  pounds  plus  .25  pounds  (4- 
ounce  basis).     Specific  gravity  of  gas  0.6.     Temperature  60  deg.  fahr. 


Gauge 

Multipliers 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multipliers 

Pressure 

Pounds 

For  One 
Minute 

For  24 
Hours 

Pounds 

For  One          For  24 
Minute      ;     Hours 

1 

.051 

73 

80 

5.443       '        7837 

2 

.119 

171 

90 

6 . 126              8821 

3 

.187 

269 

100 

6.808              9803 

4 

.255 

367 

110 

7.491             10787 

5 

.324 

466 

120 

8.174             11770 

6 

.392 

564 

130 

8.856            12752 

7 

.460 

662 

140 

9.539             13736 

8 

.529 

761 

150 

10.221             14718 

9 

.597 

859 

160 

10.904            15701 

10 

.665 

957 

170 

11.587            16685 

11 

.733 

1055 

180 

12.269            17667 

12 

.802 

1154 

190 

12.952            18650 

13 

.870 

1252 

200 

13 . 634             19632 

14 

.938 

1350 

210 

14.317       '      20616 

15 

1.006 

1448 

220 

15.000       '      21600 

16 

1.075 

1548 

230 

15.682       1     22582 

17 

1.143 

1645 

240 

16.365       1     23565 

18 

1.211 

1743 

250 

17.047       1      24547 

19 

1.279 

1841 

260 

17.730       !      25531 

20 

1.348 

1941 

270 

18.412       I     26513 

21 

1.416 

2039 

280 

19.095       !     27496 

22 

1.484 

2136 

290 

19 . 778 

28480 

23 

1.552 

2234 

300 

20.460 

29462 

24 

1.621 

2334 

310 

21.143 

30445 

25 

1.689 

2432 

320 

21.825 

31428 

26 

1.757 

2530 

330 

22.508 

32411 

27 

1.825 

2628 

340 

23.191 

33395 

28 

1.894 

2727 

350 

23.873 

34377 

29 

1.962 

2825 

360 

24.556       i      35360 

30 

2.030 

2923 

370 

25.238       '      36342 

35 

2.372 

3415 

380 

25.921            37326 

40 

2.713 

3906 

390 

26 . 604            38309 

45 

3.054 

4397 

400 

27.286            39291 

50 

3.395 

4888 

410 

27.969            40275 

60 

4.078 

5872 

420 

28.651            41257 

70 

4.761 

6855 

430 

29  334       .      42240 

179 


MEASUREMENT 


O  F 


GAS       WELLS 


Gauge 
Pressure 

Multipliers 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multipliers 

1 

1 

Pounds 

For  One 

For  24 

Pounds 

For  One 

For  24 

Minute 

Hours 

Minute 

Hours 

440 

30.017 

43224 

530 

36.160 

52070 

450 

30.699 

44206 

540 

36.843 

53053 

460 

31.382 

45190 

550 

37.525 

54036 

470 

32.064 

46172 

560 

38.208 

55019 

480 

32.747 

47155 

570 

38.890 

56001 

490 

33.430 

48139 

580 

39 . 573 

56985 

500 

34.112 

49121 

590 

40.255 

57967 

510 

34.795 

50104 

600 

40.938 

58950 

520 

35.477 

51086 

Example — Suppose  that  a  well  showed  320  lb.  gauge 
pressure  in  one  minute,  and  2-inch  tubing,  the  depth  of  the 
well  being  1250  feet.  From  the  first  table  the  volume  of  100 
feet  of  2-inch  tubing  is  2.18  cubic  feet;  and  1250  feet  will 
have  a  volume  of  12.5  times  2.18  or  27.25  cubic  feet.  From 
the  second  table  the  multiplier  for  one  minute  corresponding 
to  the  minute  pressure  of  320  lb.  is  21.825.  Hence  the  capa- 
city of  the  well  is  27.25  multiplied  by  21.825,  or  594.73  cubic 
feet  per  minute,  35.683  cubic  feet  per  hour,  856,000  cubic 
feet  per  day.  The  daily  capacity  can  likewise  be  determined 
directly  by  using  the  multiplier  for  24  hours,  corresponding 
to  320  lb.  minute  pressure,  or  27.25  multiphed  by  31,428  or 
856,000  cubic  feet  per  day. 

If  the  packer  is  set  up  from  the  bottom,  an  addition  will 
have  to  be  made  because  of  the  additional  space  between  the 
outside  of  the  tubing  and  the  wall  of  the  well.  Say  that  the 
packer  is  set  up  120  feet  in  a  hole  o^g  inches  in  diameter. 
Then  17.26  mmus  2.18  equals  15.08,  the  volume  around  the 
outside  of  the  tubing  per  himdred  feet  of  depth.  Then  the 
total  volume  around  the  tubing  under  the  packer  is  15.08 

180 


MEASUREMENT 


O  F 


GAS 


WELLS 


times  1.20,  which  equals  18. lU  cubic  feet.  The  volume  of 
the  tubing  is  27.25  cubic  feet,  as  previously  determined;  and 
the  total  volume  of  the  well  is  18.10  plus  27.25  which  equals 
45.35  cubic  feet.  45.35X21.825  equals  990.0  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  59,400  cubic  feet  per  hour,  1,425,000  cubic  feet  per 
dav. 


Fig.  62— A  GOOD  ADV ERTISEMEXT 
Introduction  of  Xatural  Gas  into  Marshall,  Texas. 


This  method  is  only  a  comparison  of  the  value  of  wells 
and  gives  results  considerably  under  the  measurement  of  the 
open  flow,  which  is  the  proper  method  of  measuring  the  out- 
put. Both  of  these  methods  should  be  accompanied  by  the 
maximum  rock  pressure.  The  best  well  is  the  one  which  will 
discharge  the  largest  quantity  of  natural  gas  at  the  highest 
pressure. 

181 


MEASUREMENT 


O  F 


GAS 


WELLS 


"SIS 


50- 


k  5S- 

\    \ 

\     : 

^5- 


2S- 
£0'- 


Fig.  63— PER  CENT  OF  OPEN  FLOW  OF 
A   GAS   WELL  CAPACITY  AVAIL- 
ABLE FOR   DOMESTIC   USE 
By  S.  S.   Wyer,  in  Natural  Gas  Service 

182 


Open  Flow  Capa- 
ities  of  Gas  WeUs— Un- 
fortunately the  well 
capacities  that  are  gen- 
erally reported  by  the 
newspapers  and  repre- 
sented to  gullible  in- 
vestors are  the  open 
flow  capacities  when  the 
wells  are  discharging 
freely  into  the  atmos- 
phere. These  open  flow 
capacities  are  very  much 
larger  than  the  actual 
delivering  capacities 
under  routine  operating 
conditions,  as  shown  at 
the  left.  The  data 
shown  in  this  illustra- 
tion were  obtained  by 
first  determining  the 
open  flow  capacities  of 
representative  wells  and 
then  passing  the  gas 
from  these  wells  through 
meters,  noting  the 
amount  that  was  ac- 
tually delivered  to  the 
gas  compressors. 

It  is  also  important 
to  note  that  even  after 
the  gas  reaches  the 
consumer's  premises 
much  is  lost,  due  to 
leakage  and  ineffective 
methods  for  utilizing 
the  gas. 


MEASUREMENT         OF         GAS         WELLS 


Rock  Pressure^Rock  pressure  means  the  highest  pres- 
sure attained  in  a  gas  well  after  being  shut  in  for  a  period  of 
24  hours  or  longer.    It  is  no  indication  of  the  size  of  the  well. 

The  greater  the  rock  pressure,  the  greater  the  distance 
the  flow  of  a  gas  well  can  be  transported  without  the  assist- 
ance of  a  compressor. 

As  the  gas  is  withdrawn  from  the  pool,  the  rock  pressure 
gradually  declines  until  it  finally  becomes  necessary  to  install 
compressors  to  raise  the  pressure  in  the  lines  sufficiently  high 
to  transport  the  gas  to  the  market. 

Working  Capacity  of  Gas  Wells  Under  Pressure — The 

following  table  show  the  approximate  amount  of  gas  a  well 
will  deliver  into  a  pipe  line  under  different  back  line  pressures 
when  the  rock  pressure  and  the  open  flow  of  the  wells,  found 
by  the  pitot  tube,  are  given. 

In  taking  the  pitot  tube  test,  the  well  should  be  "blown 
off"  for  at  least  three  hours  prior  to  test.  Due  allowance  is 
made  for  conserving  the  well  and  keeping  the  pressure  high 
enough  to  prevent  water  coming  in  on  the  sand.  The  porosity 
of  the  different  sands,  and  the  depth  of  the  different  wells  are 
taken  into  consideration. 

These  tables  are  also  based  on  the  assumption  that  there 
is  no  lead  between  the  well  and  the  main  line.  Where  lead 
lines  are  of  any  great  length  it  will  be  found  that  the  pressure 
at  the  main  line  will  be  less  than  at  the  well  end  of  the  lead 
line  when  the  well  is  turned  into  the  line.  In  this  case  the 
back  pressure  at  the  well  end  of  the  lead  line  is  the  pressure 
to  be  considered. 

All  capacities  are  given  in  cubic  feet  on  a  four-ounce 
basis  for  twenty -four  hour  periods. 

183 


MEASUREMENT 


O  F 


GAS 


WELLS 


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Oh 

gw 

gw 
go 

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c:c:a:c;c:ooxi>coiCTticO(M.-i.-i                   •     ■     •     ■ 

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184 


PART    FlVi: 

Pipe  Line  Construction 

SURVEYING— CONSTRUCTION  CAMP— DITCHING 
—BLASTING  AND  SHOOTING— SCREW  PIPE 
LINE  {Sectio}i)—FLAlN  END  PIPE  LINE  (Sectiofi) 
—PIPE  LINE  WORK  (Section). 

Surveying — In  constructing  a  long  gas  line,  a  surv^ey 
should  be  made,  using  3-foot  stakes  driven  into  the  ground 
every  two  hundred  feet,  each  stake  being  numbered  with 
even  numbers  from  the  starting  point.  In  short  lines  that 
follow  highways  the  measuring  can  be  done  with  an  auto- 
mobile speedometer,  or  with  a  bicycle  and  cyclometer.  If 
neither  of  these  is  available,  tie  a  cord  or  piece  of  cloth  on 
one  of  the  spokes  in  the  front  wheel  of  an  ordinary  buck- 
board  and  count  the  revolutions  while  driving  over  the 
route  the  line  is  to  follow.  The  revolutions  of  the  wheel, 
multiplied  by  its  circumference,  will  then  give  the  distance 
traversed  by  the  vehicle. 

Construction  Camp — It  is  very  essential  in  building  a 
camp  outfit  to  make  bunks,  floorings,  etc.,  so  that  they  may 
be  readily  removed  from  one  location  to  another.  The 
regulation  size  tent  is  28  feet  by  1-1  feet  and  will  accommo- 
date sixteen  to  eighteen  men.  Folding  cots  are  convenient 
to  use. 

The  men  employed  in  camp  are  as  follows: — cook, 
flunkies  (one  flunkey  to  every  thirty  men)  and  one  night 
watchman.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  night  watchman  to  pack 
the  buckets  for  the  following  day. 

A  No.  II  blanket  and  a  72-inch  by  50-inch  comforter 
should  be  used. 

The  charge  for  board  for  men  is  usually  deducted  from 
their  wages. 

185 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


«    CO 

^5 


•S 


sfe 


186 


PIPE        LINE         CONSTRUCTION 


Ditching — The  size  of  the  ditch  for  different  size  gas 
hnes  is  as  follows: 


Size  of 

Pipe 

Depth  in 
Inches 

Width  in 
Inches 

3-  and  4-inch 

20 
24 

28 
30 
32 
36 

Shovel 

6-inch        ....                   .                    

Width 

8-inch        

20 

10-inch 

22 

12-inch 

24 

16-inch 

26 

In  constructing  a  line  through  timber,  the  right  of  way 
should  be  cleared  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in  width. 

Allow  for  wagon  track  on  one  side  of  the  location  of  the 
ditch.  In  ditching  on  side  hills  throw  the  dirt  on  the  lower 
side. 


Fig.65—DITCHINC,    MACHINE  AT   WORK  FOR  A    HIGH 

PRESSURE  GAS  LIXE 

Between  Dennison  and  Petrolia,  Texas,  for  the  North  Texas  Gas  Company. 


The  ditchers  should  be  followed  by  the  grading  gang 
composed  of  from  three  to  ten  men.  Their  work  is  to 
straighten  out,  level  and  prepare  the  ditch  for  the  tong  gang. 

Where  it  is  not  necessary  to  lay  the  line  deep,  as  in  the 
case  of  small  lines,  a  large  plow  can  be  used.  It  is  also  often 
used  in  starting  ditches  for  large  lines. 

187 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

Blasting  and  Shooting — In  shooting  use  thirty  per  cent 
dynamite.  "Dobie"  shooting  is  commonly  practiced  and 
consists  in  placing  the  dynamite  on  top  of  the  rock,  and 
covering  it  with  mud.  Dynamite  should  be  thawed  bv 
placing  near  a  fire  and  turning  frequently.  It  should  be 
thawed  very  gradually.     In  drilling  for  shots  use  5  to  8 


Fig.  66— DITCH  I XG    MACHINE    AT    WORK  FOR  A    16-INCH  LINE 
Between  Petrolia  and  Dallas,  Texas,  for  the  Lone  Star  Gas  Company 


pound  sledges  or  hammers.     The  drills  should  be  12,   18, 
24,  and  30  inches  long,  of  IJ^-inch  diameter. 

Bach  shooting  gang  consists  of  three  men  called  strikers. 
The  shooting  gang  should  be  accompanied  by  a  blacksmith 
and  helper  with  a  portable  forge. 

To  Prepare  a  Shot — Cut  open  one  stick  of  dynamite  and 
insert  the  percussion  cap  on  the  end  of  a  fuse,  placing  the 
fuse  in  the  center  of  the  stick  and  closing  the  stick  together. 
Insert  the  dynamite  in  the  shot  hole,  packing  gently  with  a 
wooden  stick  and  fill  on  top  with  mud. 

188 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


The  fuse  should  project  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  from 
the  hole  where  the  shot  is  placed.  vSize  of  shot  varies 
according  to  the  character  of  the  rock;  generally  from  two 
to  three  sticks  to  a  shot. 

SCREW  PIPE   LINE 

Pipe  Unloading — In  loading  and  unloading  either 
screw  or  plain  end  pipe,  great  care  should  be  used  to  protect 
the  end  of  the  pipe.  Pipe  should  not  be  thrown  off  the  car 
onto  the  ground  or  pile, 
but  should  be  rolled  off 
on  skids.  Inunloading 
10-inch  or  larger,  a 
mast  and  tackle  block 
with  one  horse  for 
power  should  be  used. 
The  method  of  taking 
hold  of  the  pipe  is  by 
means  of  a  rope  loop 
with  two  iron  hooks  to 
hook  into  the  opposite 
ends  of  the  pipe. 

T  a  11  y  i  n  g~  All 
pipe  should  be  tallied 
or  measured  when  un- 
loaded from  the  car. 
In  measuringplain  end 
pipe,  measure  the  full 
length,  while  in  meas- 
uring screw  pipe,  meas- 
ure from  thread  end  to 
center  of  collar. 

Hauling — In  the  construction  of  large  size  lines,  pipe  is 
generally  hauled  under  contract  by  the  foot  or  by  the  joint. 

All  pipe  should  be  carefully  examined  and  defective 
joints  thrown  out  before  hauling  to  the  right  of  way. 

189 


Fig.  67- 


-REAR  VIEW  OF  DITCHIXG 
MACHIXE  AT   WORK 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

STANDARD  DIMENSIONS,  CAPACITY  AND  WEIGHT 

OF  WROUGHT  IRON  PIPE  FOR  STEAM, 

GAS,  OIL  OR  WATER 


Diameters,  Inches 

Thick- 

Outside 
Diam- 
eter of 
Coup'gs 
Inches 

Feet  of 

Weight 

No.  of 

ness 

of  Pipe 

Inch 

Pipe  for 
1  Cu.Ft. 
Volume 

of  Pipe 
per  Ft. 
Pounds 

Threads 

Nom. 
Inside 

Actual 
Inside 

Actual 
Outside 

per 
Inch 

^ 

.270 

.405 

.068 

.510 

2500. 

.243 

27 

M 

.364 

.54 

.086 

.720 

1385. 

.422 

18 

% 

.494 

.675 

.091 

.844 

751.5 

.561 

18 

V2 

.623 

.84 

.109 

1.156 

472.4 

.845 

14 

H 

.824 

1.05 

.113 

1.375 

270. 

1.126 

14 

1 

1.048 

1.315 

.134 

1.625 

166.9 

1.670 

113^ 

IK 

1.380 

1.66 

.140 

2.125 

96.25 

2.258 

IIM 

1^ 

1.611 

1.9 

.145 

2.375 

70.65 

2.694 

113^ 

2 

2.067 

2.375 

.154 

2.937 

42.36 

3.667 

113^ 

2V2 

2.468 

2.875 

.204 

3.500 

30.11 

5.773 

8 

3 

3.067 

3.5 

.217 

4.062 

19.49 

7.547 

8 

^V2 

3.548 

4. 

.226 

4.687 

14.56 

9.055 

8 

4 

4.026 

4.5 

.237 

5.187 

11.31 

10 . 728 

8 

43^ 

4.508 

5. 

.247 

5.750 

9.03 

12.492 

8 

5 

5.045 

5.563 

.259 

6.343 

7.20 

14.564 

8 

6 

6.065 

6.625 

.280 

7.343 

4.98 

18.767 

8 

7 

7.023 

7.625 

.301 

8.437 

3.72 

23.410 

8 

8 

7.982 

8.625 

.322 

9 .  375 

2.88 

28.348 

8 

9 

9.001 

9.688 

.344 

10.560 

2.26 

34.077 

8 

10 

10.019 

10.75 

.366 

11.680 

1.80 

40.641 

8 

12 

12.000 

12.75 

.375 

13.930 

1.27 

49.000 

8 

Where  second-hand  pipe  is  to  be  laid,  its  threads  should 
be  oiled  and  brushed  with  a  wire  brush. 


Stringing — In  stringing  screw  pipe,  lay  collar  end  in 
opposite  direction  from  tong  gang  or  starting  point  and 
allow  for  threads. 

In  placing  large  size  pipe  along  the  ditch  in  a  rough 
country,  a  small  stone  boat  or  two-wheeled  cart  with  a  horse 
is  used.  In  the  former  method,  chain  pipe  to  the  boat  and 
place  a  wooden  plug  in  the  head  end  of  the  pipe,  to  keep 
out  dirt  or  snow  when  dragging. 

190 


PIPE        LINE 


CONSTRUCTION 


STANDARD  LINE  PIPE 


Nominal 

Actual 

Nominal 

Thickness 

Inches 

Nominal 

Number  of 

Inside 

Outside 

Weight 

Threads 

Diameter 

Diameter 

per  Foot 

per  Inch 

Inches 

Inches 

Pounds 

of  Screw 

2 

2.375 

.154 

3.609 

113^ 

2>^ 

2.875 

.204 

5.739 

8 

3 

3.5 

.217 

7.536 

8 

3^ 

4. 

.226 

9.001 

8 

4 

4.5 

.237 

10.665 

8 

4^^ 

5. 

.246 

12.49 

8 

5 

5.563 

.259 

14.502 

8 

6 

6.625 

.28 

18.762 

8 

7 

7.625 

.301 

23.271 

8 

8 

8.625 

.281 

25.00 

8 

8 

8.625 

.322 

28.177 

8 

9 

9.625 

.344 

33 . 701 

8 

10 

10.75 

.2865 

32.00 

8 

10 

10.75 

.3145 

35.00 

8 

10 

10.75 

.366 

40.065 

8 

12 

12.75 

.340 

45.00 

8 

12 

12.75 

.375 

48.985 

« 

/•/,s' 


Sll'.l/i 


Swabbing — All  pipe  should  be  "swabbed"  out  before 
laying.  This  should  be  done  just  ahead  of  the  tong  gang  or 
just  before  the  pipe  is  laid. 

For  a  swab  use  one  long  joint  of 
•'^4 -inch  pipe  as  a  handle  having  a 
leather  disc,  the  same  size  as  the  in- 
ternal diameter  of  the  pipe  to  be 
swabbed  or  cleaned,  clamped  between 
two  iron  washers  of  slightly  smaller  size,  attached  to  it. 

Laying — The  work  of  the  tong  gang  consists  of 
laying,  painting,  and  inspecting  for  leaks,  and  in  large  size 
screw-pipe,  bending.  The  number  of  men  in  a  gang  depends 
entirely  on  the  size  of  the  pipe.  A  tong  gang  for  8-inch  pipe 
would  be  made  up  as  follows: — one  boss,  one  stabber,  two 
jackmen,  one  "back-up"  man,  one  "dope"  man,  and  sixteen 
tong  men. 

191 


PIPE  LINE         CONSTRUCTION 


Fig    69— PIPE    CUTTING    AND    THREADING    MACHINE    WITH   GAS 
OR  GASOLINE  ENGINE  ATTACHED 


Fie.  70— CARRYING  BAR 


Fig.  72— CARRYING   TONGS  OR 
CALIPERS 


1  lii    :i  -ril'I     JACK  AND  BOARD 


It  takes  four  men  to  each  pair  of  tongs.  The  man 
working  on  the  end  of  the  tongs  occupies  the  position  cahed 
"points"  and  is  No.  1.  The  man  nearest  the  pipe  is  called 
the  "stroke"  and  is  No.  4;  the  two  men  in  between,  Nos.  2 
and  3.  The  tongs  themselves  are  numbered  likewise  from 
1  to  4,  beginning  with  the  pair  of  tongs  nearest  the  "back- 
ups." 

192 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

The  slabber  is  the  next  most  important  man  under  the 
tong  boss.  His  duty  is  to  steer  the  pipe  when  it  is  inserted 
in  the  collar  and  see  that  the  threads  are  not  crossed  prior 
to  giving  the  pipe  the  first  few  turns  with  a  common  snub- 
bing rope.  The  jackmen  place  the  jack  in  position  to  sup- 
port the  pipe  as  the  stabber  directs.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
"back-up"  men  to  place  the  "back-up"  tongs  on  the  joint  of 
pipe  previously  set  up  to  prevent  it  from  turning. 

A  2-pound  hammer  is  used  by  the  tong  boss  or  stab- 
ber in  striking  the  collars  into  w^hich  the  pipe  is  being 
screwed,  the  idea  being  to  jar  the  collar  as  the  tongs  start 
on  the  downward  stroke  and  assist  in  setting  up  the  joint. 
Carrying  irons  or  calipers  are  used  to  carry  large-size  pipe 
from  side  of  ditch  to  position  for  stabbing.  The  "dope"  man 
carries  the  asphaltum  or  "dope"  and  paints  the  collar 
threads  just  ahead  of  the  tong  gang. 

For  letting  the  pipe  into  the  ditch  after  it  has  been  set 
up,  a  wooden  horse,  built  so  that  the  legs  will  stand  on 
either  side  of  the  ditch,  and  a  snubbing  rope  are  used. 
Only  one  w^ooden  horse  is  necessary.     The  pipe  is  let  dow^n 


Fig.  73— GAS  WELL  J .\     Till:    .\///;ir.ir,   CALII'..  FILLn 

193 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

on  the  "growler  board"  which  is  placed  under  the  collar  of 
the  joint  just  set  up,  to  support  the  pipe  above  the  ditch 
until  the  wooden  horse  can  be  moved  ahead  to  a  new 
position. 

Painting — All  pipe  laid  under  ground  should  be  painted, 
especially  when  second-hand  casing  is  used  for  a  gas  line. 
Use  a  regular  small-size  "hot  tar  cart."  The  tar  should  be 
kept  hot  and  put  on  the  pipe  with  a  brush  swab  after  the 
pipe  is  set  up  and  before  it  is  lowered  into  the  ditch. 


Fig.  74— EXPANSION  SLEEVES 


Laying  Pipe  in  Level  Country — In  laying  large-size  high 
pressure  pipe  lines  in  level  country  use  an  expansion  sleeve 
every  mile  or  two.  In  case  the  line  makes  an  abrupt  angle, 
the  tee  should  be  anchored  with  a  large  rock  or  concrete 
bumper.  This  will  prevent  the  line  parting  at  the  nearest 
sleeve. 

Laying  Pipe  in  Rough  Country — Lay  lines  deep  through 
any  knoll  or  ridge,  or,  in  other  words,  lay  it  as  straight 
as  possible  with  no  more  fire  bends  than  are  absolutely 
necessary.  On  steep  inclines,  put  in  "deadmen,"  or  anchor- 
ages, the  size  and  number  depending  upon  the  steepness 
and  length  of  the  incline.  Also  place  bunches  of  underbrush, 
with  branches  pointing  up  hill,every  fifty  feet  in  the  ditch  and 
fill  in  on  top  of  the  brush.  The  underbrush  prevents  wash- 
outs. Do  not  lay  lines  through  "slips"  or  where  there  is 
any  possibility  of  a  "slip"  in  the  future. 

194 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


Fig  73— PIPE  LINE  ON  RIVER  BA NK  A  T  POINT  OF  LEA  VINC  RI VER  BED 
Note  heavy  cast  iron  river  clamp  and  remains  of  fire  where  fire  bend  was  made. 


195 


PIPE 


LINE 


CONSTRUCTION 


Bending  Screw  Pipe — To  make  an  under  or  sag  bend, 
set  up  one  or  two  joints  beyond  the  point  to  be  bent,  sup- 
porting the  end  above  the  ditch.  Build  a  fire  of  wood 
(using  some  kerosene),  about  three  feet  long,  covering  the 
point  to  be  bent  on  both  sides  of  the  pipe.  The  fire  can  be 
built  underneath  the  pipe  in  the  ditch  or,  in  case  the  pipe 


Fig.  76— RIVER   CROSSING  SIIOWIXG   TRIPLE   LINES 

is  above  the  ditch,  use  a  couple  of  hangers,  with  a  sheet  of 
iron  suspended  under  the  pipe  where  bend  is  to  come  and 
build  the  fire  on  this.  After  being  properly  heated,  bend 
the  pipe  by  the  weight  of  men.  Care  should  be  used  that 
the  pipe  is  not  burned  or  buckled. 

For  over-bends,  make  a  sag  bend  as  above  described 
and  screw  joint  of  pipe  one-half  turn  to  bring  the  bend  on 
top. 

Rivers  and  Creeks — In  laying  lines  through  small  rivers 
or  creeks  where  the  water  contains  injurious  chemicals,  the 
pipe   should   be  encased  in   concrete.       In  crossing   a   river 

196 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


Fi^.  ?r— A.U  y.VG  /.--■•  HIGH   PRESSURE  LIXE  ACROSS   TYGARTS  VALLEV 
RHER.   XEAR  BELIX^GTON,   WEST   VIRGIXIA 


Fig.   78—LAYIXG  IJ'  HIGH   PRESSURE   LIXE  ACROSS  A    RHER 

SHOU'IXG  COFFER  DAM   TO  KEEP  OUT  WATER   WHILE 

LINE  IS  LAID  IN  CONCRETE 

197 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


where  concrete  is  not  necessar}^,  each  joint  of  pipe  should 
be  weighted  down  with  a  cast  iron  clamp  at  the  collar,  as 
the  pipe  will  float  unless  anchored.  River  "dogs"  or  hooks 
may  also  be  used  for  anchoring  the  pipe. 

In  laying  gas  lines 
across  shallow  rivers  or 
creeks  where  the  lines  are 
not  cemented,  they 
should  be  buried  if  pos- 
sible and  well  covered 
with  rock. 

Railroad  Crossings 
— Where  gas  lines  cross 
under  railroad  tracks, 
they  should  be  run 
through  a  casing  which 
should  extend  a  few  feet 
from  either  side  of  the 
track.  This  acts  as  a 
protection  against  the 
jar  of  passing  trains,  and 
in  event  of  any  leakage 
it  carries  the  gas  off  to 
the  side  of  the  track. 

Small  Gas  Lines — 
With    small-size      screw 
pipe    lines,    lay    "snake 
like"  to  allow  for  expan- 
sion and  contraction,  in 
which  case   expansion 
sleeves  are  not  necessary.     This  method  consists  in  laying 
the  pipe  in  a  wavy  line  to  permit  the  expansion  or  contrac- 
tion to  be  taken  up  by  the  bending  of  the  pipe. 


Fig.  79— HIGH   PRESSURE   GAS  LINE 
ACROSS   TRINITY  RIVER  NEAR 

DALLAS.   TEXAS. 
Note  preparatioyi  for  making  fire  bend. 


198 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  81— CAST  IRON  RIVER  CLAMPS 
To  prevent  pipe  joint  breaking  or  leaking. 


Fig.   82— HIGH    PRESSURE    GAS    LINE    A^Ko.^.^    i  n  r.    iKiSiii     ix.VER 
Near  Dallas,  Texas.      Note  the  small  gasoline  engine  and  pump  for  keeping 
water  out  of  ditch  while  line  is  being  laid. 

199 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

PLAIN   END   PIPE 
Plain  End  Pipe — Plain  end  pipe  is  the  same  as  screw  pipe 
except  that  it  has  no  threads.     Including  couplers,  it  is  a 


Fig.  83— PLAIN  END  PIPE  COUPLING  SHOWING  PARTS  AND 
SECTIONAL   VIEW  OF  RINGS 


little  more  expensive  than  screw  pipe,  although  the  cost  of 
laying  is  less  than  that  of  screw  pipe. 

Hauling  Plain  End  Pipe — In  hauling  plain  end  pipe,  load 
one  center  ring  and  two  end  rings  to  each  joint  of  pipe  on  the 
wagon.  If  the  bolts  are  received  in  sacks,  they  should  be 
distributed  along  the  right  of  way  according  to  the  number 
required  for  each  joint  of  pipe. 

200 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


>^  ^c5?\. 


A'/g.   S4—PLAIX   EXD    PIPE 
COUPLING 


Fig.  So— ALL-STEEL  LONG  SLEEVES 

Sizes:   10   inches   inside  diameter   to    18    inches 

outside  diameter,   inclusive.   16  inches  long. 


Stringing — In  stringing  plain  end  pipe,  lay  same  with 
ends  butting  together. 

Bending — Bending  plain  end  pipe  should  be  done  before 
the  pipe  is  set  up  and  ahead  of  the  laying  gang. 

In  making  bends  distribute  the  fire  for  a  distance  of  about 
three  feet  on  both  sides  of  the  pipe  and  do  not  place  the  center 
block  too  near  the  fire.  Apply  greatest  heat  on  side  of 
pipe  that  is  intended  to  stretch.  After  being  sufficiently 
heated  the  pipe  should  be  bent  gradually  to  prevent  buckling. 
The  boss  of  the  bending  gang  should  be  a  man  of  good 
judgment. 


Fig.  S6— MAKING  FIRE  BEND 

Using  pipe  tongs  and  chain  on  a  two-inch  pipe  as  a  windlass.     Large  pipe  is  chained 
together  at  opposite  end  and  block  is  placed  between  the  chained 
end  and  the  fire. 


201 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


i  .,,.   _^;      BLXDIXU  JUIXT  Uf  10-IX.   I'll'L   BY 
FIRE   METHOD  OR  HEATING 

Laying — The  pipe  is  put  together  on  skids  laid  across 
the  ditch.  After  placing  the  end  ring  and  rubber  on  the  end 
of  the  pipe,  stab  the  joint  into  the  center  ring  until  the  end 


v-^ 


Fig.  88— PLAIN  END  PIPE  READY  TO  STAB 
202 


PIPE 


LINE 


CONSTRUCTION 


of  the  pipe  butts  the 
bead  in  the  center  of  the 
center  ring.  The  out- 
side rings  should  be 
bolted  together  while  the 
pipe  rests  on  the  skids 
over  the  ditch  and  in- 
spected in  this  position. 
In  bolting  up  center 
rings,  bolt  four  bolts 
equally  distant  first. 
Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  two  outside 
rings  are  equally  distant 
at  every  point  around 
the  center  ring.  After 
ten  or  twelve  joints  are 
thus  connected,  all  but 
the  last  joint  or  two  can 
be  lowered  in  the  ditch 
by  the  use  of  wooden 
horses  and  snubbing 
rope.  Ratchet  wrenches 
should  be  used  to  tighten 

bolts.  The  bolts  should  be  placed  in  the  end  rings  so  that 
the  nuts  will  come  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  center  ring  on 
either  side  of  the  pipe.  This  will  allow  the  wrencher  to  work 
right-handed  and  with  downward  stroke,  regardless  of  which 
side  of  the  pipe  he  is  working  on. 

In  laying  over  hills  or  through  gulleys,  where  deep  ditch- 
ing is  impossible  and  angles  are  not  sharp  enough  to  require 
bending  or  the  use  of  angle  joints,  use  short  joints  of  pipe, 
making  a  slight  angle  at  each  joint. 


Fig.  89- 


STABBIXU 
PIPE 


PLAIX   EXD 


203 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


Ii^,..  :ju  and  U1—"WREXCHIXG   UP''   PLAIN  END  CENTER  RINGS 


Pi^_  92— PLAIN  END  PIPE  LINE  COMPLETED 
Ready  to  lower  into  ditch  by  use  of  wooden  horses  and  snubbing  rope. 

204 


PIPE  LINE  CONSTRUCTION 


205 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


Creeks  and  Water-Soaked  Ground — Where  line  crosses 
creeks   and  is   not    cemented,   screw    pipe  should  be  laid, 

and  the  same  methods 
should  be  followed  as 
given  under  the  subject 
of  screw  pipe. 

Plain  end  pipe  laid 
in  swampy  or  water- 
soaked  ground  should 
be  well  anchored  with 
rocks  to  prevent  blow- 
outs. 

Whenever  it  de- 
velops that  a  plain  end 
pipe  line  has  been  laid 
through  land  that  is 
liable  to  inundation  or  is 
very  wet  and  swampy  at 
certain  times  of  the 
year,  it  is  policy  to  lay 
out  a  new  survey  be- 
ginning at  the  high 
points  at  either  end  of 
the  low  ground,  and  if 
possible,  run  an  extra 
line  around  on  high 
ground  to  avoid  any 
wash  outs  or  interrup- 
tions in  the  service  of 
the  high  pressure  line. 

Rough  Country — Do  not  lay  plain  end  pipe  down  hill. 
Always  start  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  and  lay  up. 

Angle  Couplings — In  place  of  bending,  angle  couplings 

can  be  used  to  advantage  but  must  be  well  anchored  with 

rock. 

206 


Fig.  94. 

PLAIN  END  PIPE  LINE  ON  SIDE  HILL 

Showing  Rock  Fill  to  Prevent  Washout 

and  to  Anchor  Pipe. 


PIPE 


LINE 


CONSTRUCTION 


Inspection  and  Leaks — (Jnc  of  the  most  important 
things  to  observe  in  the  construction  of  a  plain  end  pipe  Hne, 
is  the  inspection  of  the  couphngs  after  being  laid. 

To  repair  leaks  on  plain  end  pipe  under  pressure,  do  not 
uncover  more  than  one  coupling  at  a  time. 

All  center  and  end  rings  should  be  carefully  inspected 
before  laying. 

Covering — The  covering  is  done  by  a  section  of  the 
ditching  gang,  after  the  pipe  has  been  tested  by  the  tong 
gang. 


Fig.  <)-,— ANGLE  COUFLIXG 


Fig.  96—90  DEG.  ELL 


Fig.  97—COVERIXG  COMPLETED  PIPE  LINE 
By  Use  of  Team  and  Dirt  ShoveL 

207 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

Do  not  cover  a  pipe  line  with  cinders  on  account  of  the 
sulphur  in  them,  they  will  corrode  or  pit  the  pipe,  and 
rapidly  destroy  it. 


Fig.  98— BLOWING  OUT  16-INCH  GAS  LINE  BEFORE  PLACING  IN  USE 

Note  the  Anchorage  or  "Deadmen"  to  Prevent  Line  Pulling  Apart  on  Account 

of  Pressure  on  Line  Before  Completion. 


208 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

PIPE  LINE  WORK 

Inspection  After  Gas  Line  is  Completed — After  a  gas 
line  is  completed  and  covered,  attention  should  be  given  the 
work  to  note  whether  the  filling  has  settled,  or  whether  any 
washouts  have  occurred.  The  best  time  for  making  an 
inspection  is  directly  following  a  hard  rain. 

A  plain  end  pipe  line  under  pressure  requires  a  consider- 
able amount  of  covering  to  prevent  blow-outs. 

Line  Walking — After  a  large  high  pressure  gas  line 
has  been  put  into  service,  a  line-walker  should  be  employed 
for  each  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  pipe,  and  he  should 
inspect  his  allotted  section  of  line  daily.  A  great  many 
companies  construct  a  telephone  line  along  the  right  of  way, 
placing  telephone  boxes,  under  lock  and  key,  every  five  or 
ten  miles.  Boxes  should  also  be  placed  at  railroad  and 
river  crossings  and  at  all  points  where  slips  are  liable  to 
occur. 

If  desired,  installations  can  be  made  for  telephone  plugs, 
in  which  case  the  telephone  stations  can  be  placed  about  two 
miles  apart.  The  line-walker  then  carries  a  portable  tele- 
phone outfit  that  can  be  "plugged  in"  at  each  of  the  stations. 

Line  Loss  Percentage — The  question  is  often  asked — 
"What  percentage  of  loss  should  w^e  have  in  our  low  pressure 
system,  even  though  the  gas  line  is  tight  and  ser^^ices  and 
meters  have  been  carefully  inspected?" 

This  is  rather  a  difficult  question  to  answer  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy  but  approximately  the  loss  will  be  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  per  cent. 

It  should  be  taken  into  consideration  that  a  small  leak 
on  a  gas  line,  even  though  it  may  be  blown  out  by  the  use  of 
a  hat,  means  a  continual  loss  of  gas  for  not  only  tw^enty-four 
hours  a  day,  but  for  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  a  year, 
and  this  so-called  small  leak  will  often  supply  a  single  con- 
sumer for  a  like  period.    Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given 

209 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

to  these  small  details.  The  gas  leaking  into  the  atmosphere 
means  a  continual  loss  in  money.  The  fact  that  natural  gas 
is  a  product  of  nature  is  positively  no  reason  why  it  should  be 
allowed  to  escape,  regardless  of  where  the  leak  may  be, 
whether  at  the  wells,  on  a  line,  or  in  house  piping.  Constant 
inspection  of  high  and  low  pressure  gas  systems  and  the  stop- 
page of  all  leakage  found  is  the  one  method  of  conservation 
that  is  successful. 

High  Pressure  Pipe  Line  Leakage^The  mere  fact  that 
one  has  walked  the  full  length  of  a  buried  pipe  line  (even 
though  the  line  is  laid  but  three  or  four  inches  beneath  the 
surface)  and  has  found  or  heard  no  leaks,  does  not  furnish 
conclusive  evidence  of  a  tight  gas  line. 

In  testing  for  leaks  some  men  use  a  torch,  made  by 
tying  a  small  bundle  of  waste  to  the  end  of  a  pole  eight  or 
ten  feet  long,  saturating  with  kerosene,  and  carrying  it 
lighted  over  the  full  length  of  the  line,  holding  the  flame  close 
to  the  top  of  the  covered  ditch.  This  method  has  met  with 
success  in  some  cases  and  is  perfectly  safe  to  the  employee 
unless  some  exceptionally  large  leaks  are  met  with.  But  it 
is  not  absolutely  positive,  and  should  not  be  used  where  a 
line  shortage  of  any  serious  nature  has  developed. 

It  is  taken  for  granted,  in  covering  this  particular  sub- 
ject, that  a  pipe  line  has  been  carefully  tested  for  leaks  by 
allowing  high  pressure  gas  to  remain  in  it  over  night  before 
placing  the  line  in  actual  service.  It  is  not  always  necessary 
to  uncover  every  joint  after  a  line  is  laid  and  covered.  One 
can  find  the  leaks  by  driving  a  blunt-pointed  bar  at  short 
intervals  along  the  pipe  line,  and  applying  a  torch  to  the 
hole  made  by  the  bar.  In  certain  kinds  of  soil  the  leaking 
gas  or  heat  of  the  sun  often  tends  to  form  crust  over  a  leak- 
ing joint,  thereby  forcing  the  leaking  gas  in  different  direc- 
tions through  the  ground,  and  especially  along  the  pipe,  in- 
stead of  directly  to  the  surface.  If,  after  driving  the  bar  into 
the  ground,  the  gas  is  found  to  burn  at  the  openings  made 

210 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

by  it,  the  exact  location  of  the  main  leak  can  be  determined 
by  the  comparative  size  of  the  flames  at  the  openings.  As 
the  holes  approach  the  main  leak  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
flames  increase  in  size,  thereby  locating  the  point  at  which 
to  make  repairs.  Oftentimes  gas  will  travel  along  a  pipe 
line  many  feet  from  the  original  point  of  leakage  before 
coming  to  the  surface. 


Fig.  99— COLLAR  LEAK  CLAMP 

Certain  kinds  of  soil,  especially  where  cinders  exist,  have 
a  chemical  effect  on  the  metal  of  the  pipe,  thereby  causing  the 
pitted  effect  commonly  noticed.  Cases  have  been  known 
where  pipe  has  been  eaten  through  in  a  period  of  from  one  to 
two  years  time.  If  expansion  sleeves  are  used  in  a  pipe  line 
and  the  line  has  any  abrupt  angles,  unless  the  point  at  the 
angle  is  well  anchored  the  expansion  sleeves  are  apt  to  pull 
apart,  due  to  the  contraction  of  the  pipe.  It  is  well  worth  the 
cost  and  trouble  to  thoroughly  inspect  a  high  pressure  gas 
line  at  least  once  or  twice  a  year.  By  the  above  statement 
it  is  meant  to  make  a  bar  test  over  the  whole  line  for 
leaks. 

Lines  should  be  kept  free  from  dirt,  water  or  other  foreign 
substances.  This  is  generally  done  with  the  great  majority  of 
pipe  lines,  yet  in  some  cases  the  regulators  as  well  as  the 
meters  will  show  dirt  and  water,  whereas  if  the  line  had  been 
kept  clean  this  would  have  been  eliminated.  While  large 
capacity  meters  or  regulators  will  take  care  of  a  fair  per- 

211 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

centage  of  dirt  and  water  without  effecting  their  usefulness, 
it  is  not  intended  that  they  should  measure  dirt  and  water  with 
a  small  percentage  of  gas. 

The  leakage  from  a  pipe  line  is  independent  of  the  quan- 
tity of  gas  being  passed  through  the  line  but  is  wholly  de- 
pendent upon  the  pressures  existing  in  the  line.  It  can  there- 
fore amount  to  a  ver>^  high  percentage  of  the  gas  passed,  in 
the  case  of  a  small  flow  and  a  high  pressure,  or  again  the  per- 
centage loss  may  be  quite  low  when  the  volume  of  the  flow  is 
large  and  the  pressure  low. 

Do  not  test  a  pipe  line  with  a  combination  of  air  and  gas. 
The  pumping  of  air  into  a  pipe  line  while  there  is  gas  in  the 
line  is  apt  to  form  the  proper  mixture  for  an  explosion.  Peb- 
bles or  scale  blown  along  a  line  may  cause  sparks  and  this 
mixture  of  gas  and  air  ignited  has  blown  up  miles  of  line. 

The  higher  the  gas  pressure  in  pipe  lines,  the  more  apt 
the  Hne  is  to  leak. 

Water  in  Pipe  Lines — It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  in- 
stances where  a  great  deal  of  free  water  has  been  drawn  from 
drips  or  taps  along  a  high  pressure  gas  line,  whereas  practi- 
cally no  free  water  passed  through  the  regulator  or  meter  at 
the  well  in  the  field.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  all 
natural  gas  carries  more  or  less  aqueous  vapor  which  will 
not  condense  at  the  meter  or  regulator  unless  the  tempera- 
ture conditions  are  right,  but  which  will  condense  at  different 
points  along  the  line,  thereby  forming  free  water.  One  pound 
of  water  at  62  deg.  fahr.  will  make  1153  cubic  feet  of  aqueous 
vapor.  While  aqueous  vapor  should  not  account  for  any 
great  loss  in  a  measured  volume  of  gas  flowing  between  two 
points,  there  are  cases  where  it  should  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, especially  where  there  is  a  compressor.  In  the 
latter  case  a  series  of  tanks  or  pipe  returns  are  installed  on 

212 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 

the  outlet  side  of  the  compressor  to  cool  the  gas,  as  well  as  to 
take  care  of  the  condensation.  The  compressor,  while  in- 
creasing the  pressure  of  the  gas,  necessarily  raises  the  tem- 
perature to  a  high  degree,  and  in  cooling,  the  aqueous  vapor 
condenses  wherever  coming  in  contact  with  the  pipe,  which 
is  kept  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  gas  by  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere  or  water  surrounding  the  cooling 
system.  In  the  latter  case  it  has  proven  good  practice  to 
install  the  outlet  lines  from  a  compressor  through  a  pond. 
This  has  the  desired  effect  and  decreases  the  amount  of 
the  pipe  required. 

Fires  on  High  Pressure  Gas  Lines  Due  to  Leaks  or 
Blow-outs — Small-size  fires  can  easily  be  put  out  by  the  use 
of  a  hand  fire  extinguisher.  It  is  good  policy  for  any  gas 
company  to  have  in  an  accessible  location,  a  hand  chemical 
cart  holding  at  least  twenty-five  gallons.  This  size  cart  will 
extinguish  a  fire  or  blaze  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet 
high.  Another  method  commonly  practiced  is  to  pile  stone 
on  the  fire  until  the  pile  is  three  or  four  feet  high,  then  turn 
a  stream  of  water  onto  the  heated  stone.  The  effect  is  to 
create  steam  which  smothers  the  flame. 

Break  in  High  Pressure  Gas  Line — If  a  break  occurs  in 
a  high  pressure  line  and  shuts  off  the  gas  in  a  low  pressure 
system,  all  gates  at  low  pressure  regulating  points  should  be 
closed  and  the  break  repaired,  after  which  all  consumers 
should  be  notified  at  what  hour  the  gas  will  be  turned  on 
again.  If  the  break  occurs  in  the  night,  it  is  better  to  keep 
gas  turned  off  until  morning. 


213 


PIPE  LINE  CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.   luO — Laying  Temporary  Pipe  Line  across  Red  River  {Ark.),  showing  where  Line 
leaves  the  new  river  bed 


Fig.  101  —  Laying  Temporary  Lm,'  ./,;■"-  the  Red  River  (Ark.)      In  mid.slream  Line 
ivas  Floated  on   a   Log   Raft.      The    Water   -icas  2n   Feel   Deep   at   that   Point 

214 


PIPE         LINE  CONSTRUCTION 

Pipe  Line  Washout  Across  Red  River  (1915) — Figures 
Number  100  and  101  fully  illustrate  the  laying  of  a  temporarv' 
10-inch  line  across  a  new  river  bed  made  by  flood  conditions, 
so  common  in  the  Southern  Mid-Continent  field.  The 
pictures  were  taken  at  the  pipe  line  crossing  of  Red  River, 
near  Garland  City,  Ark.,  of  the  Arkansas  Natural  Gas 
Company's  main  line  from  the  Caddo  field. 

The  break  was  caused  by  the  river  over-flowing  its 
banks  and  creating  a  new  riv^er  bed.  In  the  overflow  the 
original  pipe  line  was  washed  out,  with  two  additional  tem- 
porary^ lines.  To  better  describe  the  conditions  directly 
following  the  first  break  in  the  line,  the  author  quotes  from 
the  Superintendent's  letter: 

"There  was  no  bank  like  an  ordinary  river  or  break. 
All  we  could  do  was  to  go  up  the  river  with  our  motor  boat 
and  barge  and  pile  our  material  on  top  of  the  levee,  where 
you  could  stand  and  look  around  in  all  directions  and  see 
nothing  but  water,  from  one  to  ten  feet  deep.  This  break 
occurred  on  a  right  angle  bend  in  the  river  and  when  the 
levee  let  go,  the  river  went  right  across  the  countr\'.  That  is, 
it  just  divided  at  this  point  and  continued  to  run  out  that 
way  for  ten  or  fifteen  days  after  each  rise  in  the  river  and  the 
current  was  so  swift  it  was  impossible  to  undertake  to  go 
into  the  break  with  a  boat  or  anything  of  that  nature.  The 
crevice  in  this  levee  where  the  water  ran  through  was  about 
1,500  feet  wide." 

This  is  only  one  of  the  many  obstacles  encountered  by 
the  gas  company  in  transporting  gas  from  a  field  far  remote 
from  their  market.  No  business  is  so  fraught  with  unforseen 
contingencies  as  the  natural  gas  business. 

Blow-offs  and  Drips — Place  blow-ofi"s  or  drips  on  the 
main  field  line  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  field  wherever 
there  is  a  depression  or  gulley.    The  regulation  gas  well  drip 


215 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  102 — -Autornaiic  Drip  for  either  High,  Inlerrnediate  or  Low  Pressure  Gas  Lint 


Fig.  103 — Water  Flowing  jrom  Aulomatic  Drip  Shown  in  Fig.  1' 

216 


PIPE         LINE 


CONSTRUCTION 


can  be  used  to  advantage.  The  drip  should  be  placed  a 
little  ahead  of  and  higher  than  the  lowest  point  of  the  de- 
pression or  gulley.  These  drips  or  blow-offs  should  be  visited 
often  and  kept  free  from  water. 

Gas  tanks  can  be  used  on  a  gas  line  in  place  of  drips. 
These  tanks  are  built  in  different  sizes  with  a  baffle  plate  in 
the  center  against  which  the  gas  from  the  inlet  line  strikes 
in  entering  the  tank. 

The  liquid  in  the  gas  is  caught  on  the  plate  and  drops 
to  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  while  the  gas  passes  around  the 
plate  and  out  of  the  tank,  freed  from  its  liquid. 


Fig.  104 

HIGH  PRESSURE  PIPE 

LINE  SADDLE 

Xote — Sheet  Lead  makes 

the  best  Gasket 


High  Pressure  Taps — In  making 
a  high  pressure  tap,  cut  out  a  circle 
of  the  size  desired  on  the  pipe  with  a 
diamond  point  chisel;  then  strap  on 
the  saddle  with  the  nipple  and  gate 
set  up  in  saddle.  The  circle  should 
be  cut  in  the  pipe  until  the  gas  begins 
to  leak.  After  the  saddle  and  con- 
nections are  strapped  on,  the  center 
of  the  circle  can  be  punched  through 
and  the  gate  closed. 


Section 


Figs.  lOJ  and  Wj^CAST  IROX   GATE  LOi  K. 
217 


PIPE 


LINE 


CONSTRUCTION 


Gates  and  Fittings — Gates  left  unboxed  should  have 
the  wheel  removed. 

Open  high  pressure  gates  slowly  when  under  pressure. 

Use  nothing  but  high  pres- 
sure fittings  on  a  high  pressure 
gas  line  and  do  not  use  bush- 
ings. 

The  objections  to  using 
stop-cocks  on  high  pressure  gas 
lines  is  that  the  core  of  the 
stop  will  often  become  corrod- 
ed and  stick,  requiring  the 
jarring  of  the  small  end  of  the 
core  in  order  to  turn  it.  This 
is  a  dangerous  practice,  es- 
pecially if  there  is  any  frost  in 
the  metal. 

Common  paste  board  or 
tar  paper  makes  good  gasket 
material  for  field  use.  In  the 
event  of  a  high  pressure  valve 
or  stop-cock  becoming  coated 
with  frost,  do  not  attempt  to 
knock  the  frost  off  with  a 
hammer  or  wrench,  but  use 
warm  water  to  thaw  it. 

Do  not  attempt  to  caulk 
fittings  on  a  gas  line  under 
high  pressure. 

For  splits  in  a  gas  line, 
use  an  extra  heaw  cast  iron  clamp  with  stuffing  box.  For 
leaks  in  thin  collars,  use  collar  leak  clamps.  Caulking  the 
collars,  as  a  rule,  will  not  make  a  permanent  tight  joint  on 
account  of  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  pipe. 

218 


Fig.  107— SECTIONAL    VIEW   OF 
HIGH  PRESSURE  GATE  VALVE 


PIPE 


LINE 


CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  lOS— HEAVY  SI' LIT  SLEEVE 
For  Wrought  Iron  Pipe. 

Gauges — In  placing  a  high  pressure  gauge  at  a  farm 
house  or  lease  house,  it  should  be  mounted  on  the  outside  of 
the  building  so  that  it  can  be  seen  through  the  window.  Do 
not  place  any  high  pressure  lines  on  the  inside  of  such  a 
building. 

Gauges  should  be  tested  at  least  twice  a  year,  or  oftener, 
when  there  is  anv  reason  to  doubt  their  accuracy. 


Flg.W9—I^SPECI0RS    TEST  PL  ME 

Can  be  used  for  any  type  of  Indicating  or  Recording  Spring  Gauges. 

Even  though  the  hand  on  the  gauge  rests  at  zero  when  the  gauge  is  not  in  use,  it  does 

not  necessarily  follow  that  the  gauge  would  be  accurate  at  higher  pressures. 

Hence  in  testing  gauges  test  at  different  pressures  within  the  range 

of  the  gauge. 

219 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


The  outfit  illustrated  here  can  readily  be  used  to  check 
recording  gauges. 

This  inspector's  test  pump  is  furnished  complete  in 
leather  case,  and  weighs  about  eight  pounds. 

It  is  especially  adapted  for  natural  gas  companies 
having  high  pressure  gauges  scattered  over  a  wide  territory. 

House  Regulators — For  use  at  farm  houses,  lease 
houses,  and  on  some  high  pressure  lines  where  the  consumers 
are  widely  separated,  the  house  regulator  is  very  necessary. 


Fig.  no— DEAD    WEIGHT   TYPE  OF  HOUSE  REGULATOR 

It  is  essential  to  keep  the  regulator  housed  or  well  boxed 
to  prevent  children  and  animals  interfering  with  it  or  in- 
juring it.  The  writer  has  seen  chickens  roosting  on  the  arm 
of  the  weight  type  of  regulator  while  the  consumer  was 
complaining  of  its  unsatisfactory  work. 

If  a  regulator  freezes,  thaw  it  with  warm  water. 

220 


PIPE        LINE        CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  Ill 

SPRING   TYPE  OF  HOUSE  REGULATOR 

For  use  on  a  high  pressure  line. 

There  are  several  types  of  house  regulators,  one  of 
which  is  illustrated  on  page  220.  These  regulators  are 
built  with  small  needle-like  valves  and  will  reduce  the 
gas  from  a  pressure  of  several  hundred  pounds  down  to  a  few 
ounces. 


Fig.   112—LAYlXG    iJu"    HIGH    I'RIiS.sURE    (..IN    /J.M: 
MIDDLE  FORK  RIVER.   BARBOUR  CO..    W. 
Line  is  Being  Laid  in  Bed  of  River. 

221 


VA. 


PART  SIX 

CapacitiEvS  of  Pipe  Lines 

Friction — There  is  no  actual  loss  of  gas  in  a  pipe  line  as 
the  result  of  friction.  The  effect  of  the  friction  is  merely  to 
produce  a  drop  of  pressure. 

Formulas  for  Pipe  Line  Capacities — No  two  pipe  line 
formulas  will  check  exactly  with  one  another.  They  are 
intended  only  for  practical  purposes  in  determining  the 
proper  size  of  lines  to  carry  a  certain  amount  of  gas,  and 
not  to  check  with  a  meter.  So  many  different  factors  enter 
into  the  computations  of  pipe  line  flows  as  to  prevent  the 
use  of  the  formula  as  a  means  of  measuring  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy,  and  it  is  impossible  to  consider  it  as  a  check 
on  the  readings  of  a  meter.  No  two  pipe  lines  of  the  same 
nominal  diameter  and  length  are  exactly  alike  when  carefully 
calibrated,  due  to  many  causes,  the  principal  one  of  which 
is  that  commercial  pipe  is  not  strictly  of  a  uniform  diameter, 
and  accumulation  of  sediment  and  dirt  will  change  not  only 
the  effective  diameter  of  the  pipe  in  varying  amounts  but 
also  the  co-efficient  of  friction  of  the  flowing  gas.  Any  de- 
viation of  the  actual  effective  diameter  from  that  assumed  in 
using  the  formula  results  in  a  multiplied  error  in  the  com- 
puted flow,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  flow  is  proportional  to 
the  diameter  raised  to  the  2.542th  power.  Leakage  varies 
in  different  lines  due  to  different  operating  pressures,  thus 
introducing  a  variable  error,  and  it  is  seldom  found  that  a 
condition  of  uniform  flow  obtains,  which  is  assumed  in  the 
construction  of  all  pipe  line  formulas.  They  should  therefore 
be  used  only  for  determining  the  size  of  lines  in  designing 
pipe  line  system^s,  or  for  obtaining  an  idea  of  the  pressures 
to  be  expected  at  various  points  under  given  flow  conditions, 
or  the  approximate  carrying  capacity  of  the  lines  under  given 
pressure  conditions. 

222 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 

TABLES  A,  B,  C  AND  D. 
Tables  to  Find  the  Flow  in  Cubic  Feet  per  Day  of  24  Hours 
of  Gas  of  0.6  Specific  Gravity  with  Different  Pressure 
Conditions  in  Pipe   Lines   of  Various  Diameters  and 
Lengths. 

Select  in  Table  A  the  resultant  opposite  the  gauge  pres- 
sure of  the  line  the  capacity  of  which  is  to  be  determined; 
then  in  Table  B  select  the  multiplier  opposite  the  length  of 
the  line  in  miles.  Multiply  these  two  numbers.  The  result 
is  the  cubic  feet  a  one-inch  line  will  discharge  for  the  pressure 
and  length  named  in  twenty-four  hours.  If  the  diameter  of 
the  pipe  is  other  than  one  inch,  select  the  multiplier  in  Table 
C  which  is  shown  opposite  the  diameter,  and  multiply  this 
number  by  the  discharge  for  one  inch  already  determined. 
The  result  is  the  quantity  in  cubic  feet  discharged  in  twenty- 
four  hours  by  a  line  of  the  diameter  and  length  selected. 

If  the  stated  pressures  and  lengths  are  not  given  in  the 
table  they  can  be  secured  by  interpolation. 

Example — Suppose  it  is  required  to  fmd  the  discharge 
per  day  of  twenty-four  hours  of  a  pipe  line  having  an  intake 
of  200  lb.  gauge  pressure  and  25  lb.  at  the  discharge  end,  the 
length  being  twenty  miles  and  the  diameter  eight  inches.  In 
Table  A  we  find  opposite  200  (the  intake  pressure)  and  2o 
(the  discharge  pressure)  the  number  211.3  and  in  Table  B, 
opposite  20  miles,  225.5.  Multiplying  these  two  numbers,  the 
result — 47,637  cubic  feet — is  the  quantity  that,  under  the 
above  conditions  of  pressure  and  length,  a  one-inch  pipe 
would  convey.  The  given  diameter  is  eight  inches,  however. 
Opposite  this  number  in  Table  C  it  will  be  found  that  198  is 
the  proper  multiplier;  therefore  47,637  X  198  =  9,41^3,126 
cubic  feet  discharged  in  twenty-four  hours. 

If  the  pressure  were  twenty  pounds  instead  of  twenty - 
five  at  the  discharge  end,  the  flow  could  be  found  very  closely 

223 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 


TABLE  A 


{By  F. 

H.  Oliphant) 

In- 
take 
Lb. 

Dis- 
charge 
Lb. 

Re- 
sultant 

Intake 
Lb. 

Dis- 

charge 

Lb. 

Re- 
sultant 

Intake 
Lb. 

Dis- 
charge 
Lb. 

Re- 
sultant 

1 

M 

4.7 

15 

6 

21.4 

60 

25 

63.4 

1 

Yi 

3.9 

15 

9 

18.0 

60 

30 

60.0 

2 

Yi 

6.9 

15 

12 

13.1 

60 

40 

51.0 

2 

1 

4.7 

20 

1 

31.1 

60 

50 

37.4 

2 

W2 

4.0 

20 

4 

29.4 

!      60 

55 

26.9 

3 

1 

8.1 

20 

8 

26.4 

70 

5 

82.6 

3 

2 

5.8 

20 

10 

24.5 

70 

10 

81.2 

4 

1 

10.1 

20 

15 

18.0 

70 

20 

77.5 

4 

2 

8.4 

20 

18 

11.7 

70 

30 

72.1 

4 

3 

6.0 

25 

1 

36.7 

70 

40 

64.8 

5 

1 

11.8 

25 

3 

35.7 

70 

50 

54.7 

5 

2 

10.4 

25 

6 

34.0 

70 

60 

40.0 

5 

3 

8.6 

25 

10 

31.2 

80 

5 

92.8 

5 

4 

6.2 

25 

15 

26.5 

80 

10 

91.6 

6 

1 

13.4 

25 

18 

22.6 

80 

20 

88.3 

6 

3 

10.6 

30 

1 

42.1 

80 

30 

83.7 

6 

5 

6.3 

30 

3 

41.2 

80 

40 

77.5 

7 

1 

14.9 

30 

6 

39.8 

80 

50 

69.2 

7 

3 

12.5 

30 

10 

1    37.4 

80 

60 

58.3 

7 

5 

9.0 

30 

15 

33.5 

80 

70 

42.4 

7 

!     6 

6.5 

30 

20 

i    28.3 

'      90 

5 

103.1 

8 

1 

16.3 

30 

25 

20.0 

90 

10 

102.0 

8 

3 

14.1 

40 

5 

51.2 

90 

20 

99.0 

8 

5 

11.2 

40 

10 

49.0 

90 

30 

94.9 

8 

7 

6.6 

40 

15 

46.1 

90 

40 

89.4 

9 

1 

17.6 

40 

20 

42.4 

90 

50 

82.5 

9 

3 

15.6 

40 

25 

37.8 

90 

60 

73.5 

9 

5 

13.1 

40 

30 

31.6 

90 

70 

61.6 

9 

8 

6.8 

40 

35 

22.9 

90 

80 

44.7 

10 

1 

19.2 

50 

5 

61.8 

100 

5 

113.3 

10 

2 

18.3 

50 

10 

60.0 

100 

10 

112.3 

10 

4 

16.3 

50 

15 

57.7 

100 

15 

111.0 

10 

6 

13.6 

50 

20 

54.8 

100 

20 

109,5 

10 

8 

9.8 

50 

25 

51.2 

100 

25 

107.8 

10 

9 

7.0 

50 

30 

46.9 

100 

35 

103.6 

12 

1 

21.8 

50 

35 

41.5 

100 

50 

94.9 

12 

3 

20.1 

50 

40 

34.6 

100 

75 

71.6 

12 

6 

17.0 

50 

45 

25.0 

100 

85 

56.8 

12 

8 

14.1 

60 

5 

72.3 

100 

95 

33.5 

12 

10 

10.2 

60 

10 

70.7 

no 

5 

123.4 

15 

1 

25.4 

60 

15 

68.8 

no 

15 

121.4 

15 

3 

24.0 

60 

20 

66.3 

no 

25 

118.4 

224 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 


TABLE 

A   (Conlijiucd) 

In- 
take 
Lb. 

Dis- 
charge 
Lb. 

Re- 
sultan  t 

Intake 
Lb. 

Dis- 
charge 
Lb. 

Re- 
sultant 

Intake 
Lb. 

Dis- 
charge 
Lb. 

Re- 
sultant 

110 

35 

114.6 

200 

125 

163.2 

275 

100 

266.2 

110 

50 

106.8 

200 

150 

137.9 

275 

150 

238.5 

110 

75 

86.8 

200 

175 

]00.6 

275 

200 

194.6 

110 

85 

75.0 

200 

190 

64.8 

275 

250 

117.8 

110 

100 

49.0 

220 

5 

234.2 

300 

5 

314.4 

125 

5 

138.6 

220 

15 

233.1 

300 

15 

313.6 

125 

15 

136.8 

220 

25 

231.6 

300 

25 

312.5 

125 

25 

134.2 

220 

35 

229.6 

300 

35 

311.0 

125 

35 

130.8 

220 

50 

225,8 

300 

50 

308.2 

125 

50 

124.0 

220 

75 

217.1 

300 

75 

301.9 

125 

75 

107.2 

220 

100 

204.9 

300 

100 

293.3 

125 

100 

79.8 

220 

125 

188.8 

300 

125 

282.2 

125 

110 

63.1 

220 

150 

167.3 

300 

150 

268.3 

135 

5 

148.7 

220 

175 

138.3 

300 

175 

251.3 

135 

15 

1  147.0 

220 

200 

94.9 

300 

200 

230.2 

135 

25 

144.6 

230 

5 

244.1 

300 

250 

170.3 

135 

35 

141.4 

230 

15 

243.2 

300 

275 

123.0 

135 

50 

135.2 

230 

25 

241.7 

325 

5 

339.4 

135 

75 

120.0 

230 

35 

239.8 

325 

15 

338.7 

135 

100 

96.3 

230 

50 

236.2 

325 

25 

337.6 

150 

5 

163.8 

230 

75 

227.9 

325 

35 

336.3 

150 

15 

162.3 

230 

100 

216.3 

325 

50 

333.7 

150 

25 

160.1 

230 

150 

181.5 

325 

75 

327.9 

150 

40 

155.6 

230 

200 

117.5 

325 

100 

320.0 

150 

50 

151.7 

230 

215 

84.4 

325 

125 

309.8 

150 

75 

138.3 

250 

5 

264.2 

325 

150 

297.3 

150 

100 

1  118.3  1 

250 

15 

263.3 

325 

175 

281.9 

150 

120 

94.9 

250 

25 

262.0 

325 

200 

263.4 

175 

5 

188.9 

250 

35 

260.2 

325 

250 

213.0 

175 

15 

187.6 

,     250 

50 

256.9 

325 

275 

177.5 

175 

25 

i  185.7 

250 

75 

249.3 

325 

285 

160.0 

175 

35 

183.3 

250 

100 

238.8 

325 

300 

128.0 

175 

50 

178.5 

250 

125 

225.0 

350 

5 

364.5 

175 

75 

167.3 

250 

150 

207.4 

350 

15 

363.8 

175 

100 

151.2 

250 

175 

184.7 

350 

25 

362.8 

175 

150 

94.2 

250 

200 

154.9 

350 

35 

361.6 

200 

5 

214.1 

250 

230 

101.0 

350 

50 

359.2 

200 

15 

212.9 

275 

5 

289.3 

350 

75 

353.7 

200 

25 

211.3 

275 

15 

288.4 

350 

100 

346.4 

200 

35 

209.1 

275 

25 

287.2 

350 

125 

337.1 

200 

50 

204.9 

,     275 

35 

285.7 

350 

150 

325.6 

200 

75 

195.3 

275 

50 

282.6 

350 

175 

311.7 

200 

100 

181.7 

275 

1    '' 

275.7 

1 

350 

200 

295.0 

225 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 


TABLE 

A   (C 

)}iti)iue 

i) 

In- 
take 
Lb. 

Dis- 
charge 
Lb. 

Re- 
sultant 

Intake 
Lb.     , 

j 

Dis- 
charge 
Lb. 

Re- 
sultant 

Intake 
Lb. 

Dis- 
charge 
Lb. 

Re- 
sultant 

350 

225 

275.0 

400     1 

75 

405.1 

'     425 

300 

307.2 

350 

250 

251.0 

400 

100 

398.8 

425 

325 

279.3 

350 

275 

221.6 

400 

125 

390.2 

425     ' 

350 

245.7 

350 

300 

184.4 

400 

150 

380.8 

425 

375 

203.7 

350 

325 

132.8 

400 

175 

369.0 

425 

400 

146.2 

375 

5 

389.5 

400 

200 

355.0 

450 

5 

464.6 

375 

15 

388.8 

400 

225 

338.6 

450 

15 

464.0 

375 

25 

387.9 

4C0 

250 

319.4 

450 

25 

463.3 

375 

35 

386.8 

400 

275 

296.9 

450 

35 

462.3 

375 

50 

384.6 

400 

300 

270.2 

450 

50 

460.4 

375 

75 

379.5 

400 

325 

238.0 

450 

75 

456.2 

375 

100 

372.7 

400 

350 

197.5 

450 

100 

450.5 

375 

125 

364.0 

400 

375 

141.9 

450 

125 

443.4 

375 

150 

353.4 

425 

5 

439.6 

450 

150 

434.7 

375 

175 

340.6 

425 

15 

439.0 

450 

175 

424.4 

375 

200 

325.4 

425 

25 

438.2 

450 

200 

412.3 

375 

225 

307.4 

425 

35 

437.2 

450 

225 

398.3 

375 

250 

286.1 

425 

50 

435.2 

450 

250 

382.1 

375 

275 

260.8 

425 

75 

430.7  j 

450 

275 

363.5 

375 

300 

230.0 

425 

100 

424.7 

450 

300 

342.1 

375 

325 

191.1 

425 

125 

417.1 

450 

325 

317.2 

375 

350 

137.4 

425 

150 

407.9 

450 

350 

288.1 

400 

5 

414.5 

425 

175 

396.9 

450 

375 

253.2 

400 

15 

413.9 

425 

200 

383.9 

450 

400 

209.8 

400 

25 

413.1 

425 

225 

368.8 

450 

425 

150.4 

400 

35 

412.0 

425 

250 

351.3 

475 

50 

485.7 

400 

50 

409.9 

425 

275 

330.9 

500 

50 

510.0 

226 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 


TABLE  B 

Length 

1 

Length 

j  Length 

of  Line 

!  Multiplier 

of  Line      Multiplier 

1  of  Line 

Multiplier 

Miles 

i 
1 

Miles 

Miles 

K 

2880. 

19                231.2 

61 

129.1 

M 

2016. 

20                225.5 

'         62 

128.1 

% 

1652.4 

21                220.1 

63 

126.9 

Yi 

1419.7 

22                214.9 

64 

126.0 

H 

1275.9 

23                210.0 

65 

125.1 

% 

1158.6 

24                205.7 

66 

1    124.1 

^8 

1083.7 

25                201.6 

:         67 

123.1 

1 

1008.0 

26                197.6 

68 

122.2 

11., 

826.2 

27 

193.8 

1         69 

121.3 

1^" 

763.6 

28 

190.5 

70 

I    120.4 

2 

714.9 

29 

187.0 

72 

i    118.7 

21., 

638.0 

30 

183.9 

74 

117.2 

2U 

607.2 

I        31 

181.0 

i         76 

115.6 

3 

582.7 

32 

178.0 

!         78 

114.2 

31., 

539.0 

33 

175.6 

1         80 

112.7 

4 

504.0 

34 

172.9 

1         82 

111.2 

41., 

475.5 

35 

170.3 

84 

109.9 

5 

450.0 

36 

168.0 

86 

108.7 

51., 

428.9 

37 

165.8 

88 

107.5 

6  " 

411.4 

38 

163.6 

90 

106.2 

61., 

395.3 

39 

161.3 

92 

105.1 

7 

380.4 

40 

159.5 

94 

103.9 

71., 

367.9 

41 

157.5 

96 

102.9 

8 

356.2 

42 

155.6 

98 

101.8 

81., 

345.2 

43 

153.7 

100 

100.8 

9  " 

336  0 

44 

152.0 

102 

99.8 

91., 

327.3 

45 

150.2 

105 

98.3 

10 

319.0 

46 

148.7 

107 

97.5 

101., 

311.1 

47 

146.9 

110 

96.0 

11 

303.6 

48 

145.4 

112 

95.3 

111., 

297.3 

49 

144.0 

115 

93.9 

12  " 

291.3 

50 

142.6 

118 

92.8 

121., 

284.7 

51 

141.2 

120 

92.0 

13 

276.4 

52 

139.8 

122 

91.2 

131., 

274.6 

53 

138.5 

125 

90.2 

14 

269.5 

54 

137.1 

130 

88.4 

141., 

264.6 

55 

135.8 

135 

86.8 

15 

260.5 

56 

134.8 

140 

85.2 

151. 

255.8 

57 

133.5 

145 

83.7 

16 

252.0 

58 

132.3 

150 

82.3 

17 

244.7 

59 

131.2 

18         1 

237.5 

60 

130.1 

227 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 

TABLE  C 

MULTIPLIERS  FOR  DIAMETERS  OTHER  THAN 

ONE  INCH 


Size 

Size 

Size 

of  Pipe 

Multiplier 

of  Pipe 

Multiplier 

of  Pipe 

Multiplier 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

M 

.0317 

3 

16.50 

I        12 

556 

Vi 

.1810 

4 

34.10 

16 

1160 

K 

.5012 

5 

60.00 

18 

1570 

1 

1.0000 

5^ 

81.00 

20 

2055 

1^ 

2.9300 

6 

95.00 

24 

3285 

2 

5.9200 

8 

198.00 

30 

5830 

2V2 

10.3700 

10 

350.00 

36 

9330 

by  adding  the  figures  opposite  15  and  25  and  dividing  by  2, 
which,  computed  as  above,  gives  a  discharge  of  9,469,154 
cubic  feet. 

The  measure  for  wrought  iron  pipes  greater  than  12 
inches  in  diameter  is  taken  from  the  outside.  For  pipes  of 
ordinary  thickness  the  corresponding  inside  diameters  and 
multiphers  are  as  follows: 


Outside  Diameter 


Inside  Diameter 


Multiplier 


15 

14M 

863 

16 

im 

1025 

18 

iiH 

1410 

20 

19H 

1860 

The  preceding  tables  can  also  be  used  to  determine  the 
pressures  or  the  size  of  pipe  necessary  to  convey  a  certain 
quantity  of  gas. 

Example — Required  the  pressure  to  furnish  say,  9,500,000 
cubic  feet,  per  24  hours,  through  8-inch  pipe  20  miles  long. 

9,500,000 

—  =  48,030  that  one-mch  pipe  must  convey,  per 

198 


228 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 

24  hours;  opposite  20  miles  (Table  B)  the  number  is  225.5, 
which    governs    the    capacity    for    this    particular     length 

— '- =  212.9,  which  number  must  be  compared  to  a  com- 

225.5 

bination  of  high  and  low  pressures  in  Table  A.  Upon  inspec- 
tion of  this  table  it  will  be  found  that  200  pounds  intake  and 
15  pounds  outlet  will  fulfill  the  condition.  Table  A  also 
shows  a  number  of  other  combinations  which  are  equal  to 
212.9,  or  close  to  it,  any  of  which  will  apply  equally  well. 
If  the  size  of  the  line  is  taken  at  10  inches  in  diameter,  then 

9,500,000        ^--,..,  .    ,,  ,     u-  u  ■     u     • 
=  2/,  143  IS  the  amount  which  one-mch  pipe  must 

350 

27  143 

convey  and  — '- =  120.    Bv  inspecting  Table  A,  110  intake 

225.5  -        ^ 

and  20  pounds  discharge  will  be  the  pressures  required. 

If  it  is  required  to  find  the  size  of  pipe  necessary  to 
convey  9,500,000  cubic  feet  in  24  hours,  and  the  other  con- 
ditions remain  the  same,  then  198  X  212.9  X  225.5  = 
9,500,000;  therefore  9,500,000  -  (212.9  X  225.5)  =  198, 
and  this  number  is  found  opposite  8-inch  pipe  in  Table  C. 
vSay  that  4,550,000  cubic  feet  are  required  when  the  other 
conditions  remain,  then  4,550,000  -f-  ^212.9  X  225.5)  = 
95  + .  By  referring  to  Table  C  it  is  found  that  95  is  opposite 
the  size  of  6-inch,  which  is  therefore  the  required  size.  The 
numbers  found  in  Tables  A  and  B  corresponding  with  the 
pressures  and  lengths,  multiplied  together  and  divided  into 
the  quantity,  must  give  the  number  corresponding  to  the  size 
of  pipe.  Any  of  these  quantities  in  the  formula  can  be  de- 
termined by  multiplying  the  two  known  factors  and  dividing 
their  product  into  the  known  cubic  feet. 

Examples  Showing  Application  of  Table  D — Suppose 
that  a  line  is  composed  of  10-inch  and  16-inch  pipe,  that 
there  are  30  miles  of  the  former  and  20  miles  of  the  latter, 

229 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 

TABLE  D 
COMPARATIVE  CAPACITY  OF  PIPES  OF  DIFFERENT 
GAS  APPLIED  TO  LINES  IN  WHICH  A 


Size 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

OF 

Pipe 
Ins. 

Note 

—In  mak 

Comparative 
ing  computations  observe 

1 

1 

34 

265 

1,150 

3,573 

9,035 

39,000 

2 

.0294 

1 

7.8 

34 

105 

266 

1,150 

3 

.0037 

.128 

1 

4.34 

13.45 

34 

147 

4 

.0295 

.231 

1 

3.11 

7.80 

34 

5 

.0741 
.0293 
.0037 

.3274 
.1272 
.0295 
.0094 

1 
.3954 
.0915 
.0295 
.0116 

2.51 

1 

.2316 

.0741 

.0295 

10.94 

6 

4.34 

8 

1 

10 

.3260 

12 

.1272 

loM 

.0086 

.0373 

16 

.0295 

17^ 
18 

19H 
20 

The  above  table  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  the  length  of  pipes  for 
the  same  quantity  of  gas  varies  as  the  5.0835  power  of  their  diameters. 
The  value  of  the  increasing  or  decreasing  sizes  can  readih'  be  appre- 
ciated by  an  inspection  of  the  table. 

It  is  particularly  useful  in  securing  the  value  of  a  series  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  of  pipes  in  the  same  line  by  reducing  the  values  of  the 
several  sizes  to  some  one  of  the  sizes  in  use.  For  example,  on  the  hori- 
zontal line  in  the  table  a  unit,  say  1  foot  or  1  mile  of  8-inch  pipe,  has 

230 


CAPACITIES      OF      PIPE       LINES 

TABLE   D 
DIAMETERS  CONVEYING  THE  SAME  QUANTITY   OF 
NUMBER  OF  DIFFERENT  SIZES  ARE  USED 

(By  F.  II.  Oliphant) 


10 


12 

1534     16 

17M 

18 

19K 

20 


Values 

carefully  the  decimal  notations. 


121.210 

306.380 

1,043.700 

1,326,000 

1.937.700 

2.406.100 

3.382,300 

4.120.000 

3.570 

9.035 

30,700 

39,000 

57,000 

70.765 

99,480 

121.178 

457 

1.150 

3.940 

5,004 

7,312 

9,040 

12.760 

15.550 

105 

265 

908 

1,150 

1.685 

2,092 

2.940 

3,575 

34 

85.75 

292 

371 

542.3 

673.4 

946.6 

1,150 

13.45 

34 

115.5 

147 

215 

265 

375 

457 

3.11 

7.80 

26.75 

34 

50 

61.70 

86.70 

105 

1 

2.52 

8.61 

10.94 

16 

19.85 

27.90 

34 

.8954 

1 

3.41 

4.34 

6.32 

7.80 

11.00 

13.45 

.1161 

.2935 

1 

1.27 

1.85 

2.30 

3.24 

3.95 

.0915 

.2316 

.7871 

1 

1.46 

1.81 

2.55 

3.11 

.0630 

.1582 

.5386 

.6843 

1 

1.24 

1.75 

2.13 

.1273 

.4337 

.5510 

.8053 

1 

1.41 

1.71 

.3085 

.3920 
.3218 

.5728 
.4703 

.7113 
.5840 

1 
.8209 

1.22 

1 

the  same  value  as  3.11  feet  or  miles  of  10-inch.  7.80  feet  or  miles  of 
12-inch  and  105  feet  or  miles  of  20-inch. 

When  smaller  sizes  are  used  1  foot  or  1  mile  of  8-inch  pipe  is  equiv- 
alent to  0.2316  feet  or  mile  of  6-inch  pipe,  etc. 

Larger  diameters,  when  compared  to  smaller,  give  the  equivalent 
in  an  increased  length,  and  smaller  diameters  give  a  less  length  when 
compared  with  a  diameter  assumed  to  be  1. 


231 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 

and  that  the  pressure  is  200  pounds  at  the  end  of  the  10-inch 
section,  next  the  source,  and  25  pounds  at  the  discharge  end 
of  the  16-inch  section.  After  adding  15  pounds  to  each  of 
the  pressures  to  obtain  the  actual  pressure,  these  become  215 
and  40  pounds,  respectively. 
The  formula  is 


Q  =  ^2aJ 


^Jf^^. 


y/Pi  —  Pi  =    V  215'— 40'  =    V  44,625  =  211.3 

For  10-inch  pipe  the  multiplier  is  a  =  350,  as  given  in  Table 
C.  The  length  of  equivalent  10-inch  pipe  is  now  to  be  de- 
termined, so  that  it  can  be  substituted  in  the  formula.  One 
mile  of  16-inch  pipe  is  equivalent  to  0.0915  mile  of  10-inch, 
and  20  miles  of  16-inch  will  therefore  be  equivalent  to  30  + 
1.83  =  31.83  miles  of  10-inch  pipe.  The  same  result  can  be 
obtained  another  way,  as  follows :  1  mile  of  10-inch  pipe  is 
equivalent  to  10.94  miles  of  16-inch.  Hence  20  miles  of  16- 
inch  will  be  equivalent  to  — '- —  =  1.83  miles  of  10-inch  pipe. 

10.94  ^  ^ 

The  equivalent  lengths  thus  determined  remain  the  same 
for  all  variations  of  pressure  at  the  intake  and  outlet. 

By  substituting  the  determined  quantities,  the  equation 

(?  =  42  X  3.50^/|f  •    0  =  42  X  ^-^'^f^^  =  551,700 

cubic  feet  per  hour. 

Suppose  the  pressure  be  increased  to  400  pounds  at  the 
intake  and  25  pounds  at  the  outlet;  then 

V  415'— 40'   =    V  170,625  =  413. 
As  compared  with  211.3  this  quantity  would  be  1.95  times 
211.3,  showing  the  increase  in  quantity  to  be  almost  directly 
as  the  intake  pressure  when  the    outlet   pressure    is    small 
by  comparison  with  the  intake. 

232 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 

The  proof  of  this  iUustration  can  be  shown  by  substi- 
tnting  the  equivalent  distance  for  the  16-inch  pipe  and  the 
multiplier  for  the  same  instead  of  the  10-mch. 

By  referring  to  the  table  it  will  be  found  that  1  mile  of 
10-inch  pipe  is  equivalent  to  10.94  miles  of  16-inch.  Thirty 
miles  of  10-inch  are  therefore  equivalent  to  30  X  10.94  =  328 
miles  of  ]  6-inch.  The  whole  line  is  consequently  equivalent  to 
328  +  20  =  348  miles  of  16-inch  pipe. 

In  the  table  of  multipliers  for  diameters  greater  than  one 
inch,  opposite  16  w^e  find  1160;  then  if  the  pressures  remain 
200  and  25  pounds  respectively,  as  before, 


Q  =  42  .  lil^p  X  1160,  Q  =  42X2113X1160  ^  ..^^^^^ 
\     d48  18. bo 

cubic  feet  per  hour,  w^hich  is  almost  exactly  the  same  quantity 
as  obtained  before. 

For  any  specific  gravity  other  than  0.6,  multiply  the 
final  result  bv 


4 


0.6 


sp.  gr.  gas 


For  temperatures  of  flowing  gas  when  observed  above  60 
deg.  fahr.,  deduct  1  per  cent,  for  each  10  degrees,  and  add  a 
like  amoimt  for  temperatures  less  than  60  deg.  fahr. 

Reduction  in  Pressure  of  Natural  Gas  in  Pipes,  Owing 

to  Fittings — The  drop  in  pressure  due  to  friction  in  ells,  tees 
and  globe  valves  of  ordinary  manufacture  is  allowed  by  an 
addition  to  the  length  of  straight  pipe. 

The  following  table  shows  the  additional  length  required 
to  compensate  for  friction  due  to  ells,  and  tees.  For  globe 
valves  increase  the  values  shown  in  the  table  by  50  per  cent. 

233 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 


Diameter  of  Pipe 

Additional 

Diameter  of  Pipe 

Additional 

Inches 

Length,  Feet 

Inches 

Length.  Feet 

1 

1.5 

6 

27 

IM 

2.0 

7 

29M 

IV2 

'^-i 

8 

35M 

2 

^% 

10 

46^3 

Wi 

Q% 

12 

58% 

3 

m 

15 

76% 

3H 

10% 

18 

95 

4 

13M 

20 

108 

5 

18?^ 

24 

133 

Table  of  Multipliers  for  Different  Specific  Gravities — 

The  following  correction  factors  apply  to  all  computations  of 
the  Pitot  tube  and  orifice  measurements  and  of  the  flow  of 
gas  in  pipes,  when  the  formulae  used  are  based  on  a  standard 
specific  gravity  of  gas  of  0.60.  In  practice,  the  corrections 
for  gravity  are  usually  neglected  unless  accurate  results  are 
required. 


TABLE  OF  MULTIPLIERS  FOR  DIFFERENT  SPECIFIC 
GRAVITIES 


Specific 
Gravity 

Multiplier 

Specific 
Gravity 

Multiplier 

.75 
.70 
.65 

.894 
.925 
.960 

.6 

.55 

.50 

1.000 
1.044 
1.095 

Pipe  Capacity — The  capacities  of  pipe  lines  of  different 
sizes  vary  as 

'  5.0835       2.542 

d  =  d 

where  d  is  the  diameter.     The  area  of  a  pipe  varies  as  the 
square  of  the  diameter,  or  as  d~. 


234 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 

Tables  for  Computing  the  Flow  of  Natural  Gas  in  Pipe 
Lines — Based  upon  formula  by  F.  H.  Oliphant  in  "Production 
of  Natural  Gas  in  1900,"  United  States  Geological  Survey. 


Formula  —  ()  =  42(7.  *  , 

Q     =  cubic  feet  per  hour. 
42    =  constant. 

a      =  computed  value  for  diameters. 
Pi    =  gauge  pressure  +  15  pounds  at  intake  end  of  line. 
P2    =  gauge  pressure  +  15  pounds  at  discharge  end  of  line. 
L     =  length  of  line  in  miles. 
For  value  of  .4,  sec  Table  of  Multipliers. 
Calculated  for  1-inch  pipe  (flow  in  thousands  of  cubic 
feet)  for  24  hours  at  normal  pressure  of  14.4  pounds. 

vSpecific  gravity   of  gas  taken  at  0.6.     For  any  other 

specific  gravitv  multiplv  final  result  bv     %    '- 

\  sp.gr.gas 

For   other   diameters,    or   value    A,    use   the   following 

multipliers : 

M  inch 0317  23^^  inches 10.37       8  inches 198  0 

H  inch 1810  3  inches 16.50     10  inches 350.0 

^  inch 5012  4  inches 34.10     12  inches 556.0 

1  inch 1.0000  5  inches 60. CO     16  inches 1160.0 

Vi  inches 2.9300  bH  inches 81.00     18  inches 1570.0 

2  inches 5 .  9200  6  inches 95 .  00 

For  pipes  greater  than  12  inches  in  diameter  the  measure 
is  taken  from  the  outside  and  for  pipes  of  ordinary  thickness 
the  corresponding  inside  diameters  and  multipliers  are  as 

follows : 

Outside  Inside  Multiplier 

15  inch 14M  inch 863 

16  inch IbH  inch 1025 

18  inch 1714  inch 1410 

20  inch 19^  inch 1860 

For  riveted  or  cast  pipe  with  inside  diameters  as  below, 

use  multipliers  opposite: 

20  inch 2055         30  inch 5830 

24  inch 3285         36  inch 9330 

All  pipe  line  capacity  tables  on  pages  236  to  324  are 

based  on  the  foregoing  formula. 

235 


CAPACITIES       OF      PIPE       LINES 


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236 


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243 


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s  n  ^ 

rr  -S  5o 


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— ■  X  CO  r^  -H 
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— .  (^  _ -~  1^  „  ,-.  1^  —  rr  i^  O  CO 

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259 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 


»  ^^ 


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1— I  O  '-<  lO  X  C^  lO  00 
'->  •—  ^1  'M  'M  fC  fC  CO 


gCCSQSCOC 
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cc  o  t^  -^ 
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x'  -^'  r  r  vd"  -f  r -'  I-'  o  CD  x'  -r  oo" 
cc  y:  -r  (^  X  c  C-.  ~  X  "-C  i.-t  co 

X  -M  tC  sr.  C-J  iC  X  -<  •*  t^  O  CO 

^'  -^*  -^■'  c^f  c^f  cs'  CO  CO  CO  ■*'  •<** 


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I--."  x'  O  -+  O  '+ 

X  r^  o  o  — 1  M 
o  t^  —  L':'  X  — 


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111 


O  lO  'M  t^  'M  X  C  — ' 

O  c;  o  o  CO  -r  ic  -* 
rj-  lo  t^  X  o  CO  i:;  C-. 


>=  ac  sc  3=  at  sr  g  ; 


o  -r  -i-  CO  '.")  t^  o  c-i 

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ogogoog 

CO*  o  c^i  -f  o  !m'  tC 

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CO  '-'3  O  t^  O  O  '-' 


CO  CO  CO  CO  -^ 


t^  ^  CO  o 

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0-1  "^i  icco 


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o  o  o  c  o  o  e  o 

t^'  — '  o  — '  co'  O  :d  -h' 
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COTOt^XOO^ 


Lo  1-  -h'  t>r  GO 

O  O  C  C^l  Tfi 

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mil 


—  O  X  CO  o  ^ 
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1-H  c<f  im' ca  in"  CO  CO 


o  oo  o  oo 

8SS8S8 

C^f  iD  C5  'M* 

CD  qc^j^io 

00  CO  •^  rt< 


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260 


CAPACITIES      OF      PIPE       LINES 


C-.  fc  I -I  q  cc  ic 


S=r'  3^  sr  : 


C  OQO 

8Si8 


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C  — '  -r  ij  ^'  ;f  ^'  'm'  ; 


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t^  CO  lO  (M  CC  CO 

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t^coioco 


cr.  u;  --c  t-  — 
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C£>  00  O  CO  lO 


£555525  c 


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lO  t-  cc  X  X  X  t-  t^ 

C^CO-^iOOt^OCO 


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IOC5  p  -<  ■ 
"H  6J  ^  lO' 


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(M  (M  CO  CO  CO 


lO  X  Ol 
t^  C5(M 


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— <'  L-^'  r-'  — '  co'  cc  o  c^'  t'  r^*  c^  im' 

COOt^OOl^^OS— 'COiOQO 

(M  •*  CO  05  — _^  CO  iq  r^_  q  C4  ■<*<_  o 
^  i-T  ^■'  — '  c^f  m'  'm"  c^f  CO  CO  CO  CO 


COOOOTfCCnCOTTi-O 
fOTfiCiO-^'I'COM— ' 
T-<iMCO'^iOOt>.XC5 


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261 


CAPACITIES      OF      PIPE       LINES 


ss§s 


:~)  w  :c  X  — -M  re -J* 

t^  C  (TC  L-  CC  O  C^)  '^ 

— '  — r  — '  — '  m'  c-j  c^ 


r£  t--'  \£  I.-'  c^  — '  re  x'  cT  t>^ 

c;  —  —  —  --i  y:  o  ~"i  Tf  o 


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iC  re  t^  2 
Le  X  c:  ei 


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t^  :s  »o  r>.'  c^f  ej  ef  r-T  x  r^  ic  -m'  x  re  c-  re'  • 
iM  re  Tj-  ic  o  X  cr  ei  'T  i.e  r^  ~  —  ri  -r  --c  : 


COO 

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c;  cr.  t^  i-e  ce  c  X  ic 
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26^ 


CAPACITIES       OF 


P  E       LINES 


5=^  ^  —  s 
cooS 


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ro  a5  to  "C  c;  o*  i.rf  yS  y5  — '  -r  >o 

o^  t^  o  ^  CO  -rr  O  'O  —  o  -< 


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■^  I ^  y:  c.  o  M  o  r—  o  CI  o  1^  o  CI  lo  r^  o 


263 


CAPACITIES       OF      PIPE       LINES 


^ 


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—  ut  -r  -H  X  re  X  •^J 
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X  c  '--  X  C-.  -r  I 


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COOt^OOO'—O-lTfiOOOOCS 


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!    -f    O)    t^    — '    ^ 

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o  '^^  — '  t^  CO  30  c^)  L.O 
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CO  X  —  O  O  •-  CM 


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■  -^  -^  y'  C5  -^"  — '  — '  — '  O  co'  tf  x'  C;'  - 1'  — '  --5  x'  ~'  m'  ro' 

.  CO  C;  'T  O  LO  O  O  O  i-O  t^  C-.  ' r  -^  x  o  ~i  l-  t^  — 

'^'^c^coco'!ti't<i-o>-occr>.c:o^^d'n'i-ooi>x< 


1— i-H-H—nClC^JClC^COCOCOCO"* 


264 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 


■O  iC  X  -r  _  C 
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T  -^  t^  cr.  —  ~  I 


o  :c  -f  —  c-r  —  c:'  w  cT  CO 
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CO  "-^  i^  X  r-.  —  -M  -'o  -r  uo 


c;  r^  C-.  3  CO 

CO  ■M  :o  C  c-i 

-^  «-0  -C:  X  CT. 


t^  i-O  r:  L~  ~  1  —  "M  CO  r 

o)  sc  —  ^  --o  x  c;  o  - 
CO  -^  ^  t^  CO  C5  O  M  r 


5=  =:  =  =: 


i=;s;5=;=£i=;5t3=;5=:3C=;^s=:=;3<5, 


X  =;  s;  =;  =;  =t  ^  : 

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3S    5S    =E    5?   5S 


c^i  c  1-  ri  t-  x  I-  y:  ri  i-  -  n  ■-: 

^  uO  >-2  —  V^  ■::^  L^  1-  >^   :^  ;;^  ^  P 


5555888 

•-r rf  zr  -m'  o  i 

—  I-  ?l  I --2  3 


iiii^ 


gS58i 

c  co'  —  -^  o 

D  lO  O  -^  C^ 
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~ f  x'  — " 


3  O  O  Q  >0  O  'O  Q  lO  O  lO  o  i-O  9  ;o  o 

I-  X  O  O  Ol  'O  t^  O  M  >0  t^  O  C^l  'O  t-  O 

r-,  ^  «  ^  -M  M  ^4  71  ro  CO  CO  CO  -t< 


265 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 


-T'm'X  ~  ■_;  r^  X 

CO  i-o  S  f-^  ~  c;  — 


:8S 


CO  CO  X  iM  C-.  'M  —  Ci  -r  X) 

•M  1^  O  r-i  ^  CI   71   —   ^   O 

CO  -r  'O  t^  cc  cr.  o  '—  c-i  CO 


SS88S 

c  c  o  c  o 


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t^  O  — '  C-l  C-l  'M  —  C  C-.  C.  X  t- 

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00  oc  i^"  CO  o  CO  —  CO  ■*'  CO  ■m'  — 
(M  cc  CO  X  c^i  C-)  M  -H  o  c;  oo  t^  _ 
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x  —  --T  I-  r^  -^  M 

C  C;  O  "*  QO  (M  o 
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C:  c;  o  o 

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— I  lO  00  x'  o 
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266 


CAPACITIES       OF 


P  E       LINES 


Ui 

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iiiiiii: 


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.  O  lO  OO  CO  «o 

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^  00  Oi  c:  cr.  I ^  tr  re  —  ~  cr. 

■^  c^j  i-o  C-.  c;  -T  —  x  —  t  -  X  X 

oco-^co  —  XTO'-c  —  -c— 1 


,  -H  CD  »C  CO  O  ^ 
t^  »0  O  -*  'M  O 
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•  lo  CO  o  CO  ;c  QC* 


C  O  O  Q  : 


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•  ^'  x"  :c  Q  r-'  -r  :c  co  —  d'  cT  —' 

•  00  CO  -M  25  X  t^  M  —  ri  ri  5  tr 

:  o  (M  CD  C-.  o  X  L-  c:  --r  —  --r  o 


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»-<  n  CO  -^  Lo  CO  t-  oc  o  o  ^1  o  r^  c  ji  lO  ^.  o  CM  i-o  r^  o 


267 


CAPACITIES       OF      PIPE       LINES 


5,  td  ^  a- 


r>r  o  trf  irT  r-T  p  c^i  ^ 


^  >*:  *  5  *=  ?*  2c  5  O  Q 
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CO  CO  X  O  '-^^  C^l  "I  '^,  ^  ^ 
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Sc  >c  at  >=: 

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'o -m'^  tooo'cJ''-^  CO  i-dr^ 
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268 


CAPACITIES       OF      PIPE       LINES 


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273 


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274 


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275 


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276 


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277 


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278 


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279 


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280 


CAPACITIES       OF       PIPE       LINES 


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281 


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282 


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283 


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284 


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286 


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287 


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324 


PART  SEVKX 

Compression  of  Natural  Gas 


Description — A  great  many  people  not  directly  con- 
nected with  the  gas  business  are  under  the  impression  that 
compressing  natural  gas  consists  of  "pumping"  air  into  a 
gas  line.  This  is  erroneous.  A  compressor  outfit  consists 
of  steam  or  gas  driven  compressors,  with  all  necessary  cool- 
ing systems  and  appurtenances  for  taking  gas  from  the  field 
or  incoming  gas  lines,  at  a  low  or  natural  pressure,  com- 
pressing and  deliv^ering  it  at  a  higher  pressure  to  outgoing 
lines,  in  order  to  overcome  the  friction  in  the  line  enroute  to 
the  next  compressing  station  or  to  the  market. 

If  air  were  introduced  into  a  gas  line  under  pressure,  there 
would  be  great  liability  of  an  explosion  of  the  whole  line, 
due  to  the  air  mixing  with  the  gas  and  forming  an  explosive 
mixture  found  in  a  gas  engine  cylinder. 

Object  of  Compressors — The  distance  of  flow  of  natural 
gas  from  the  gas  well,  is  limited  by  the  "rock  pressure"  or 
natural  pressure.  The  higher  the  "rock  pressure,"  the 
greater  the  distance  a  certain  quantity  of  gas  will  flow  from 
the  well  in  a  certain  sized  pipe  line. 

The  two  illustrations  following  give  a  very  compre- 
hensive idea  of  the  advantage  of  the  compressor. 

The  first  illustration  shows  the  comparative  size  of  pipe 
necessary  to  carry  three  million  cubic  feet  of  gas  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  one  hundred  miles,  with  and  without  the  aid  of 
a  compressor. 

325 


COMPRESSION 


O  F 


NATURAL         GAS 


326 


COMPRESSION 


O  F 


NATURAL 


GAS 


<s    f=IP£  LINC. 


Fig.  114 — With  a  compressor  at  the 
intake  of  6"  pipe  line  compressing  gas 
to  a  pressure  of  300  lb.  and  with  5  lb. 
at  the  discharge  end  it  will  require  a  6" 
line. 


Fig.  1  l.'>^\Vilhoiil  compressor  and 
gas  at  14  lb.  pressure  at  the  intake  of 
line,  with  3  lb.  pressure  at  the  discharge 
end  it  will  require  an  18  inch  line. 


An  eigh teen-inch  pipe  line  will  cost  to  lay,  including 
pipe,  from  ten  to  twelve  times  as  much  as  a  six-inch  pipe 
line. 

l^OLUM£r  S  M/LLIO/^  COS/C  r£ET  /="£:/?  O/JX. 


/OO   MILE'S 


2  e 


300   LB. 


^     LB. 


Fig.    116 


i/OLOM£r  S  Ai/LL/OAJ    CUB/C  F££T  f^fTR  O/^Y. 


I  MILE 


^s-  LB. 

Fig.   117 


Of'SCH/IR&E:    ^/i>£<5ySURE 
S-  LB. 


Figure  Nos.  116  and  117  shows  the  comparative  lengths 
of  two  six-inch  pipe  lines,  one  being  connected  w^ith  a  com- 
pressor and  receiving  its  gas  at  300-lb.  pressure,    and  the 

327 


COMPRESSION         OF         NATURAL         GAS 


328 


COMPRESSION         OF         NATURAL  GAS 

other  receiving  its  gas  from  the  Held  at  a  natural  pressure  of 
25  lb.,  and  both  delivering  three  million  cubic  feet  of  gas 
per  twenty-four  hours  at  a  5  11).  discharge  pressure. 

When  the  natural  pressure  of  gas  in  the  held  decreases  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  cannot  be  delivered  at  distant  points 
without  the  employm.ent  of  exceedingly  large  size  lines,  it  is 
necessary  to  install  compressors  to  raise  the  pressure.  These 
can  be  driven  either  by  steam  or  gas  engine,  either  direct 
connected  or  belt  drive.  They  can  also  be  driven  by  electric 
motor,  in  which  case,  however,  alternating  current  induction 
motors  should  be  used,  in  order  not  to  have  any  sparks  in  the 
compressor  station,  which  would  be  the  case  if  direct  current 
commutator  motors  were  used.  Belt  or  rope  drive  can  be 
employed,  but  direct  connected  compressors  are  preferable 
unless  the  units  are  so  small  that  it  would  entail  too  high  a 
speed  for  economical  operation.  If  gas  engines  are  adopted, 
using  natural  gas  for  fuel,  it  is  good  practice  to  have  them 
so  designed  as  to  be  capable  of  being  converted  into  producer 
gas  engines  in  case  the  price  of  gas  should  rise  to  a  point 
sufficient  to  warrant  using  coal  in  a  gas  producer.  The  ad- 
visability of  this,  however,  depends  upon  the  availability 
and  cost  of  coal  in  the  locality  of  the  plant. 

The  capacity  of  compressor  cylinders  of  different 
diameters,  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  based  on 
an  actual  volumetric  efficiency  of  80  per  cent.  This  table 
assumes  that  the  intake  pressure  of  the  gas  entering  the 
compressor  cylinder  is  at  atmosphere  and  the  measurement 
basis  of  the  gas  discharged  from  the  compressor  is  also  at 
atmosphere  (14.4  pounds  per  square  inch  absolute.) 

Quantity  of  gas,  in  cubic  feet  per  24  hours,  compressed 
by  cylinder  of  one  inch  stroke,  running  at  one  revolution 
per  minute  with  intake  pressure  at  14.4  pounds  per  square 
inch  absolute  (equal  to  atmos])heric  pressure  or  0  pounds 
gauge.) 

329 


COMPRESSION         OF         NATURAL         GAS 


99       21 454  32  . 

121       22 499  33 

144      23 545  34. 

171       24 595  35. 


1060 

1130 

1197 

1270 

14 199       25 646       36 1342 

15 231       26 698       37 1418 

16 262       27 753       38 1498 

17 295      28 810      39 1577 

18 333       29 869      40 1660 

19 370       30 930 

20 410      31 995 


Fig.   119~EXTERI0R    \- JEW— GAS  COMPRESSING  STATION 

Jefferson  County  Gas  Company,   Loleta,  Pa.     Note  Cooling  Tank.      The  pipes  in  the 

cooler  are  covered  with  'water  during  operation. 

To  ascertain  the  quantity  of  gas  compressed  by  a 
cylinder  of  any  diameter,  running  at  a  given  number  of  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  with  the  intake  at  atmosphere,  multiply 
the  number  corresponding  to  the  diameter,  taken  from  the 
table,  by  the  length  of  the  stroke  in  inches  and  the  number 
of  revolutions  per  minute.  If  the  intake  pressure  is  at  any 
value  other  than  atmosphere,  multiply  the  quantity  as  ob- 
tained above  by  the  fraction, 

p-\-UA 
14.4 


330 


COMPRESSION         OF         NATURAL         GAS 


331 


COMPRESSION         OF         NATURAL         GAS 

where  p  is  the  actual  intake  pressure  in  the  hne  in  pounds 
per  square  inch  gauge. 

The  power  required  to  compress  natural  gas  depends 
upon  the  ratio  of  intake  to  discharge  pressure  in  pounds 
per  square  inch  absolute.  The  following  table  shows  the 
indicated  horsepower  required  on  the  compressor  piston  to 
compress  gas  at  the  rate  of  1,000,000  cubic  feet  per  day, 
from  various  intake  pressures  to  various  discharge  pres- 
sures. As  will  be  seen  from  the  table,  when  the  range  of 
pressures  through  which  the  gas  is  compressed  becomes  high, 
the  power  required  is  much  less  when  two-stage  compression 
is  adopted,  than  when  the  gas  is  compressed  through  a  single 
stage.  The  values  in  the  following  table  must  be  increased 
by  ten  per  cent,  to  ascertain  the  brake  horse-power  required 
from  the  engine.  The  power  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  gas  compressed. 

In  addition  to  the  decreased  power  per  million  feet  of 
gas  required  by  two-stage  compression  over  single-stage 
compression,  a  further  advantage  is  obtained  by  the  reduction 
of  the  temperature  of  the  discharged  gas.  In  fact,  it  is 
necessary  to  adopt  two-stage  compression  when  necessary 
to  compress  through  a  wide  range  of  pressures  in  order  to 
keep  the  temperatures  from  becoming  injuriously  high.  The 
temperature  rise  due  to  the  compressing  of  gas  depends  upon 
the  ratio  of  the  absolute  pressure  of  discharge  to  intake, 
and  not  upon  their  actual  values.  For  instance,  the  tem- 
perature rise  is  as  great  in  compressing  from  atmosphere  to 
60  pounds  as  from  60  pounds  to  360  pounds.  In  order  to 
obtain  the  benefits  of  two-stage  compression  it  is  necessary 
to  cool  the  gas  after  it  leaves  the  first  stage  compressor  and 
before  entering  the  second  stage.  It  is  also  advisable  to  cool 
it  after  leaving  the  high  stage,  for  two  reasons.  First,  this 
obviates  injurious  effects  to  sleeve  couplings  in  the  discharge 
line  due  to  the  high  heat.  Second,  it  condenses  whatever 
liquid  there  may  be  thrown  down  by  the  gas  due  to  its  com- 

332 


TABLE  OF  INDICATED  HORSE-POWER  ON  THE  COMPRESSOR  PISTON  PER  MILLION  CUBIC  FEET  OF  NATURAL  GAS  PER  DAY 


SURE,  Pounds  per  Square  Inch,  Gauge 

SUCTION 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

125 

150 

175 

200 

225 

250 

276 

300 

325 

350 

375 

400 

Sim 

One 
Stage 

Two 

Stage 

One 
Stage 

Two 

Stage 

One 
Stage 

Two 
State 

One 

31^8° 

strie 

Strg°e 

Stage 

sTaTe 

S?a";e 

sTaTe 

St^ge 

Strg°e 

One 
Stage 

Two 
Stage 

One 
Stage 

sT:?e 

One 
Stage 

Two 
Stage 

One 

Two 

One      Two 
Stage  Stage 

One 
Stage 

Two 
Stage 

One 
Stage 

Two 

One 
Stage 

Two 

One 
Stage 

Two      One 
Stage    Stage 

Two 
Stage 

m3 

1B7.0 

123.0 

114.0 

133  7 

121.6 

144.3 

128.2 

133.8 

139.0 

150.0 

159.6 

168.0 

176.0 

182 

2 

189.0 

194 

6 

200.0 

206 

- 

210 

4 

215 

220 

98,0 

95.8 

105.7 

1030 

115.1 

110.5 

124 

0 

116.0 

132.8 

121.0 

141.3 

126.2 

137.8 

146.4 

1546 

162.2 

168 

6 

175.0 

180 

2 

185.8 

190 

195 

6 

200 

204 

843 

93.8 

93.8 

102 

100.0 

110 

0 

106.0 

117.5 

111.2 

125 

116.0 

142.7 

127.4 

136,2 

144.6 

151,4 

158 

0 

164.0 

169 

0 

174.2 

178 

183 

8 

187 

6        , 

191 

5  Lb 

67.0 

75.3 

82 

39 

5 

96.0 

95.8 

102 

100.3 

116 

8 

110.2 

130.3 

120,0 

143,5 

127  8 

134,5 

141 

0 

146.0 

151 

6 

156,6 

160 

165 

2 

168 

172 

10  Lb 

54.5 

62.0 

69 

75 

9 

81,8 

88 

100 

0 

982 

1120 

1076 

123,0 

114.6 

133.8 

122,0 

144,1 

128 

0 

133.6 

138 

6 

143,4 

147 

151 

8 

156 

0 

158 

15  Lb. 

44.6 

52.5 

59 

65 

4 

71.0 

76 

88 

98,5 

97,6 

108,3 

105  6 

118 

0 

111,6 

126,9 

117 

4 

135,8 

123.0 

144 

4    128 

2 

132,6 

137 

141 

0 

144 

148 

20  Lb. 

44.0 

50 

56 

9 

623 

67 

78 

88,3 

97,5 

97.0 

106 

103,4 

114,2 

109 

4 

122 

114.0 

129 

9    119 

4 

137.4 

124,0 

144,8 

128 

132 

2 

135 

139 

25  Lb. 

43 

49 

5 

54.8 

59 

71 

80.1 

88,8 

96 

96,0 

1042 

102 

0 

111 

107.2 

US 

5    112 

0 

125.2 

1162 

132,0 

120 

138 

3 

124 

6 

144,9 

128 

4     

131 

30  Lb. 

43 

4 

48.7 

53 

64 

73.3 

81,7 

89 

96,1 

95 

6 

103 

100.6 

109 

4    106 

0 

115.8 

1100 

121,9 

114 

127 

5 

118 

0 

133 

121 

8     139,3 

125 

35  Lb. 

•42.9 

48 

58 

67,3 

75,1 

82 

89,3 

95 

95.4 

101 

7    100 

0 

107.7 

1044 

113,3 

108 

118 

7 

112 

4 

124 

116 

0     129 

119 

40  Lb. 

42 

53 

62,0 

69,9 

76 

83,3 

89 

95 

2      94 

8 

100.7 

99,0 

106,1 

103 

111 

2 

107 

2 

116 

110 

2     121 

114 

45  Lb. 

.    . 

48 

57,0 

65,0 

71 

78.2 

84 

89 

7 

95.0 

94,6 

100,0 

98 

104 

9 

102 

4 

109 

106 

2     114 

109 

50  Lb. 

44 

52,9 

60,5 

67 

73.5 

79 

84 

7 

89.7 

94,8 

94 

99 

3 

98 

0 

103 

101 

8     108 

105 

60  Lb. 

. 

45,1 

52.9 

59 

65.3 

71 

76 

2 

81.0 

85,5 

90 

0 

94 

94 

0       98 

97 

70  Lb. 

45.9 

52 

58,2 

64 

69 

1 

73.6 

78,2 

82 

2 

86 

90 

80  Lb. 

40.2 

46 

52,8 

57 

62 

8 

67.3 

71.7 

75 

79 

83 

90  Lb. 

41 

47,0 

52 

57 

0 

62.0 

66,0 

70 

73 

77 

100  Lb. 

42.1 

47 

52 

7 

56.9 

61.0 

65 

68 

,      72 

120  Lb. 

43 

9 

48.4 

52,7 

56 

59 

,      63 

140  Lb. 

41.0 

45,0 

CO 

„ 

55 

160  Lb. 

42 

45 

„ 

49 

180  Lb. 

„ 

200  Lb. 

COMPRESSION         OF         NATURAL         GAS 


333 


COMPRESSION         OF         NATURAL         GAS 

pression,  before  these  liquids  have  an  opportunity  to  pass  out 
into  the  main  Une  where  they  would  freeze  and  plug  the  line. 
It  is  therefore  necessary,  in  addition  to  coolers,  to  provide 
the  system  with  proper  drips. 

When  gas  is  compressed  through  a  pressure  range  not 
greater  than  three  compressions,  it  is  not  necessary  to  employ 
a  very  extensive  cooling  system. 


Fig.  121—BRADEN  STATION,  OKLAHOMA  NATURAL  GAS  CO..  KELLEY- 

VILLE,   OKLAHOMA 

Four  650  h.  p.   Single   Tandem   Compressors. 


Do  not  place  a  large  capacity  meter  less  than  two  miles 
ahead  of  a  compressor,  without  providing  an  extra  system 
of  gas  tanks  or  drips  to  absorb  the  vibration  or  throb  of  the 
piston. 

334 


COMPRESSION 


O  F 


NATURAL 


GAS 


Ample  receiver  or  tank  capacity  should  be  provided  on 
the  high  pressure  line,  located  from  100  to  200  feet  from  the 
compressing  plant,  with  a  blow-off  valve,  so  that  the  moisture 
and  semi-solids  carried  by  the  gas,  may  be  dropped  in  cool- 
ing, trapped  and  blown  off,  and  thus  prevented  from  passing 
into  the  line. 

In  case  of  dirty  gas,  it  is  also  important  to  provide  a  tank 
or  receiver  upon  the  intake  main  near  the  compressing 
])lant,  to  trap  out  sand  and  solids  to  prevent  their  entrance 
into  the  compression  cylinders. 

When  the  intake  line  is  operated  below  atmospheric 
pressure  a  by-pass  can  be  arranged  to  cut  off  the  tank  and 
blow  it  out. 

A  relief  valve  should  always  be  placed  on  the  compressor 
discharge  betwxen  the  cylinder  and  the  first  gate,  to  protect 
the  compressor  in  case  it  is  started  up  with  the  discharge 
g-ate  closed. 


Fig.  122—HAULIXG  A    COMFRESSOR   BED  FROM    RAILROAD 
TO   COMFRESSOR   FLA  NT 

One  of  the  many  incidenlal  expenses  incurred  in  supplying  cities  distant  from  the  gas  fields 
with   Xatural   Gas 

335 


COMPRESSION         OF         NATURAL         GAS 


336 


COMPRESSION 


O  F 


NATURAL 


GAS 


Booster — In  gas  fields  where  the  pressure  has  dropped 
down  to  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  and  the  market  is  within  a 
reasonable  distance,  boosters  can  be  installed  in  place  of 
compressors.  A  booster  consists  of  a  high  pressure  blower 
with  power.  While  it  is  not  capable  of  greatly  increasing  the 
pressure,  it  will  have  large  volume  capacity.  The  outfit  does 
not  call  for  a  very  large  investment,  and  is  often  worked  with 
success,  especially  where  the  consumption  does  not  exceed 
from  3,000,000  to  5,000,000  cu.  ft.  per  day. 

Boosters  are  often  installed  near  gas  fields  to  deliver  the 
gas  to  a  compressor  station  two  or  three  miles  away.  This 
is  a  great  assistance  to  the  compressor  station  and  also  de- 
creases the  size  of  the  compressor  required. 

Number  of  Compressor  Stations,  Horse  Power,  etc. — 

Throughout  the  United  vStates  and  Canada  there  are  over 
two  hundred  stations  compressing  natural  gas  for  domestic 
use.  The  total  horse  power  aggregates  approximately 
325,000.  About  1,800,000  domestic  consumers  are  dependent 
for  their  gas  supply  on  these  compressor  installations. 


Fig.  1£4 


337 


PART   EIGHT 

Measurement  of  Flowing  Gas  in  Pipe  Lines 

PITOT  TUBE— ORIFICE  METER 
LARGE       CAPACITY       DIETER 

Henri  Pitot — Henri  Pilot,  a  French  Physicist  and  En- 
gineer, was  born  in  1695,  and  died  in  1771.  It  was  probably 
sometime  during  the  year  1750  that  he  invented  the  device  for 
measuring  the  velocity  in  a  stream  by  means  of  the  velocity 
head  which  it  will  produce.  In  its  simplest  form  it  consists 
of  a  bent  tube,  the  mouth  of  which  is  placed  pointing  up- 
stream and  measures  the  impact  or  dynamic  pressure  made 
by  the  flowing  water.  The  water  rises  in  the  vertical  part  of 
the  bent  tube  to  a  heighth  above  the  surface  of  the  flowing 
stream,  and  this  height  is  equal  to  the  velocity-head  V"  2g, 
so  that  the  actual  velocity  v  is  in  practice  practically  equal 
to  ^2gh.  As  constructed  for  use  in  streams,  Pitot's  apparatus 
consists  of  two  tubes  placed  side  b}'  side  with  their  sub- 
merged mouths  at  right  angles  so  that  when  one  is  opposed 
to  the  current,  the  other  stands  normal  to  it. 


^^-^ 


h 


ytiz 


K£^^^- 


h 

_L 


Fig.  125— THE  FIRST  PITOT   TUBE   USED  IX  MEASURIXG 
FLOWIXG  STREAMS 


338 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN     PIPE    LINES 

Pitot  Tube — From  the  foregoing  invention  was  first 
devolved  the  method  now  commonly  used,  to  measure  the 
open  flow  of  gas  wells.  But  one  tube  is  used  with  which  to 
measure  the  dynamic  flow  of  the  gas,  it  not  being  necessary^ 
to  measure  the  static  or  atmospheric  pressure. 

Later  in  1904,  Mr.  B.  C.  Oliphant,  of  Buffalo,  X.  Y., 
perfected  what  is  now^  known  as  the  Oliphant  Pitot  Tube 
described  in  the  following  article : 

MEASUREMENT  OF  NATURAL  GAS  WITH 
PITOT  TUBES 

B.  C.  Oliphant 

At  the  time  natural  gas  was  first  being  introduced  in  the 
large  cities,  both  for  commercial  and  industrial  purposes,  the 
question  came  up  as  to  how  to  measure  the  large  quantities 
of  gas  at  the  city  limits  of  the  cities  being  supplied.  This 
w^as  for  the  following  purposes:  1st:  To  know  just  what 
the  daily  consumption  was,  and  to  determine  the  max- 
imum or  peak  loads,  and  at  what  hours  they  came. 
2nd:  To  determine  the  amount  of  leakage,  or  loss  in  the 
city  plants;  or,  in  other  words,  to  check  up  the  domestic 
and  commercial  meters  over  a  period  of  a  month,  or  a  year. 

The  Buffalo  Natural  Gas  Fuel  Co.,  of  Buft'alo,  N.  V., 
was  the  first  one  to  go  into  this  question,  and  experiments 
entailing  a  great  deal  of  expense,  and  covering  a  long  period 
of  time,  were  conducted  in  Buff'alo. 

At  this  time,  little  was  known  of  the  proportional  meters, 
which  had  not  then  reached  the  perfection  which  they  have 
to-day .  They  were  then  more  on  the  type  of  the  old  boiler 
meters,  and  due  to  the  large  quantities  of  gas  which  they 
had  to  handle,  and  the  heavy  ])ressures  under  which  the  gas 
passed  through  the  meters,  they  were  unwieldy  aft'airs. 
These  meters  were  tested  out  against  a  large  gas  holder. 
Under  constant  conditions,  for  which  they  were  set,  both  as 

339 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

for  rate  of  flow  and  pressure  they  gave  very  good  results, 
but  when  the  pressure  was  made  to  vary,  and  the  rate  of 
flow^  diminished  or  increased,  the  meter  proved  that  it  might 
run  fast  or  slow.  Consequently,  after  a  great  many  tests 
of  this  kind  had  been  made,  the  scheme  of  using  the  Pitot 
Tube  Gauge,  or  more  commonly  known  as  the  Pitot  Meter, 
was  decided  upon. 


Fig.  126--THE  FIRST  PITOT   TUBE   USED  IN   MEASURING 
FLOWING  GAS  IN  A    PIPE  LINE 


The  first  Pitot  Tubes  used  in  the  measurement  of 
natural  gas  were  rather  crude  affairs  compared  with  the 
Pitot  Tube  of  to-day.  Figure  126  is  a  rough  sketch  of  the 
Pitot  Tube  as  first  used  for  the  measurement  of  natural  gas 

The  principles  of  this  tube,  however,  are  identically 
the  same  as  those  used  in  the  more  refined  tube  of  to-day. 
"A"  was  a  piece  of  ^^"  iron  pipe,  "L"  shaped  and  inserted  in 
a  4"  pipe  so  that  the  open  end  "A"  came  directly  in  the  centre 
of  the  pipe.  "B"  was  placed  one  foot  distant  from  the  point 
"C"  and  on  the  up-stream  side.  By  means  of  the  gas  flow- 
ing against  the  open  end  "A,"  the  static  and  dynamic  pres- 
sures were  transmitted  to  the  "U"  tube,  and  only  the  static 
pressure  was  transmitted  from  the  point  "B."  In  other 
words,  the  two  static  pressures  were  balanced,  and  the  only 
thing  then  left  w^as  the  dynamic  pressure  w^hich  caused  the 

340 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

water  in  the  "U"  tube  to  rise  to  the  height  "h."  This  "h" 
then  is  the  height  of  water,  or  pressure  which  would  pro- 
duce the  velocity  "V"  of  the  gas  flowing  in  the  pipe  line. 
The  static,  or  gauge  pressure  "p"  was  observed  by  means  of 
a  large  "U"  tube  filled  with  mercury.  The  Pi  tot  Tube  was 
then  calibrated  and  the  co-efficient  for  it  determined  by 
passing  gas  through  the  Pitot  Tube  into  a  large  gas  holder 
under  varying  conditions  of  flow  and  pressure.  Other  tubes 
were  then  made  by  comparing  them  to  these  tubes,  and  as 
they  proved  successful  after  a  good  many  years  it  was  de- 
termined to  make  more  refined  tubes  of  various  sizes,  and 
again  compare  them  with  the  gas  holder,  thus  giving  what 
is  known  as  Standard  Tubes  to  which  all  other  tubes  are 
compared,  and  their  co-efficients  determined.  The  following 
will  describe  the  methods  and  various  formulae  employed  in 
determining  their  co-efficients. 

Br  =  Atmospheric  pressure  pounds  per  square  inch; 

Pt  =  Gauge  pressure,  Pitot  Tube,  pounds  per  square  inch; 

P,i  =  Gauge  pressure.   Gas    Holder,   pounds  per  square 

inch; 
h  =  Difference  water  level  inches,  Pitot  Tube, 
Br +  Pt  =  Absolute  pressure.     Pitot  Tube,  pounds  per  square 

inch, 
Br  +  P„  =  Absolute     pressure.     Gas      Holder,     pounds     per 
square  inch, 
L  =  Lift  of  holder  in  feet 
V  =  Volume  of  holder  in  cu.  feet  for  each  foot  rise — 7238 

cu.  feet, 
K  =  Volume  passed  by  Pitot  Tube  in  five  minutes. 

By  using  the  Pitot  Tube  formula,  we  have: 
K  =  CVh(Br+pt) 

Where  C  is  the  co-efficient  to  be  determined. 
341 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

For  the  holder,  taking  14.4  pounds  per  square 
inch,  as  the  average  atmospheric  pressure  and 
four  ounces  as  selhng  or  buying  pressure, — or 
14.65  lbs.  per  sq.  inch,  we  have: 

K  =  494.06XL(Br  +  P„) 
Hence: 


CVh(Br+Pt)    =   494.06 XL  (Br XPh) 

or, 

(BrXP„) 
C=  494.06  XL 


Vh(Br+Pt) 
The  above  "C"  will  be  for  five  minutes  run,  or 
1-12  the  hourly  co-efficient. 

Under  Buffalo  conditions,  the  average  }'early  flowing 
and  storage  temperature  of  the  gas  was  found  to  be  40°  and 
50°  fahr.,  respectively.  Hence  the  temperature  of  the 
flowing  gas  at  the  tube  was  carefully  observed,  as  was  also 
the  temperature  of  the  gas  in  the  holder  and  the  co-efficient 
"C"  corrected  by  the  following  formula: 

To   t; 

c,=c—     — 

T„\  T, 

Where, 

Cx  =  Corrected  co-efficient. 

To  =  Absloute  Standard  temperature   of  stored 

gas  (461-f50j=511°  fahr. 
T„  =  Absolute  Temperature  of  gas  in  holder. 
Tf  =  Absolute     Temperature     of    flowing     gas 
(461 +40)=501°  fahr. 

T,=  Absolute  Temperature  of  flowing  gas    in 
tube. 

In  determining  the  co-efficient  of  each  tube,  the  dynamic 
head  (h)  was  made  to  vary  from  one  to  twenty-eight  inches 

342 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

and  the  pressure  was  also  made  to  vary  over  a  wide 
range,  and  as  a  result  of  over  one  hundred  tests,  the  co- 
efficients for  two,  three,  four  and  five-inch  vStandard 
Tubes  were  obtained.  These  co-efficients  were  cor- 
rected for  four  ounce  selling  or  buying  pressure;  0.644 
Specific  Gravity  of  gas;  40°  fahr.,  flowing  and  50°  fahr. 
storage  temperatures  of  gas.  Having  now  vStandard  Pitot 
Tubes  and  either  co-efficient  determined,  it  is  a  simple  matter 
to  determine  co-efficients  for  other  tubes  by  comparing  them 
to  the  vStandard  Tubes  in  the  following  manner: 


Fig.  127~-TESTING  ONE    TUBE   AGAINST  A    STANDARD    TUBE.    TO 
DETERMINE    THE   CO-EFFICIENT  FOR  NEW   TUBE 


In  Figure  127,  suppose  A  to  be  the  Standard  Tube 
whose  co-efficient  C  is  known,  and  suppose  B  to  be  a  Pitot 
Tube  whose  co-efficient  C  is  to  be  determined.  As  A  and  B 
are  in  the  same  line  of  pipe  and  only  separated  by  about 
sixty  feet  and  have  no  leaks  between  them,  the  same  amount 
of  gas  will  pass  through  Pitot  Tube  B  as  through  the  vStand- 
ard Pitot  Tube  A, 


hence— C  Vh'(p'+ Br)    =   C\h(p+Br) 


Vh(p  +  Br) 


C 


Vh'(p'-fBr) 

Where  A  and  B  are  so  close  together,  there  is  practically 
no  difference  in  temperature,  and  consequently,  no   correc- 


tion. 


343 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

The  co-efficient  C  determined  above,  will  be  for  standard 
conditions,  viz: 

40°  fahr.  =  Flowing  Temperature  of  Gas 
50°  fahr.  =  Storage  Temperature  of  Gas 
0.644        =  Specific  Gravity  of  Gas 

Base  =  4  Ounce  selling  or  buying  pressure 

Assuming  C'  to  have  been  established  on  the  above  con- 
ditions, and  it  is  desired  to  change  the  co-efficient  to  suit  new 
conditions  as  follows: — 

Standard  pressure  and  temperature  basis,  (Storage  Val- 
ues) Pg  and  Ts  instead  of  Pq  and  Tq  : 

Gravity  Gx  instead  of  Gf  and  the  flowing  temperature 
Tx  instead  of  Tf. 

Let  Cx  be  the  correct  co-efficient. 

Then,  for  a  change  in  Pressure  Base  from  Pq  to  Pg 

Po 

Cx  =  C'  — 

Ps 

For  change  in  Temperature  Base  from  Tq  to  Ts 

Ts 

C,  =  C 

T„ 

For  change  in  Gravity  Base  from  Gf  to  Gx 


Gf 

Cx  =  C' 

V   Gx 

Where  the  flowing  temperature  is  Tx  instead  of  Tf 


/  Tf  T3 

Cx  =  C'    ;^— i.  e.   correction  factor  = 


V  Tx  \   T, 

344 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

In  this  manner,  a  tube  may  be  changed  to  meet  any  con- 
ditions, and,  indeed,  such  has  been  done  with  very  satis- 
factory results.  We  now  have,  after  corrections  have  been 
made,  the  following  formula  for  the  quantity  of  natural  gas 
(Q)  per  hour  passing  through  a  tube  whose  hourly  co-efficient 

is  C,  

Q  =  CVh(p+14.4) 
where  h — ^difference  in  inches  of  the  water  level  in  the  U 
gauge. 
p=  gauge  pressure 
14.4  =  The   average   yearly   atmospheric   pressure   in 
pounds  per  square  inch  for  conditions  where 
natural  gas  is  usually  sold. 
From  the  expression  V  h(p+14.4),  it  will  be  readily  seen 
that  a  table  can  be  compiled  which  makes  the  work  of  arriv- 
ing at  the  quantity  Q,  a  very  simple  matter. 

In  this  manner,  miUions  of  cubic  feet  of  natural  gas  per 
day  are  being  bought  and  sold  through  these  tubes.  They 
are  being  used  to  determine  pipe  line  leakage  and  losses. 
They  are  used  to  determine  the  efficiency  of  natural  gas 


/  PI  PC  r/tp 


:z: 


> -^ 


'.'/•/•// 


lC/vcth  or  J  Tcsf  /i  re-e-T 


Fig.  1£S—SECTI0XAL  \'IE\V  OF  THE  OLIPHAXT  PITOT  TUBE 
Showing  Saddle.  Tip  and  section  of  Brass  Tube 

345 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

compressors.  They  are  used  to  test  gas  meters  of  all  kinds 
under  pressure,  both  in  the  shop  and  in  the  Field,  and  they 
are  also  used  to  determine  the  amount  of  gas  a  well  will  put 
into  a  line  against  different  pressures. 

The  drawing  on  page  345  shows  the  arrangement  of  the 
Pitot  Tube  as  used  to-day. 

Portable  Pitot  Tube — -The  ordinars^  commercial  Pitot 
Tube  should  be  used  with  caution,  however,  for  in  spite  of  its 
extreme  simplicity  it  is  a  delicate  instrument  and  should  be 
handled  as  such.  When  used  in  ordinary  pipe  lines,  the  ve- 
locities encountered  may  give  differential  pressures  so  small 
that  it  is  impossible  to  read  them  with  accuracy  and  the 
interior  surface  of  the  pipe  may  be  rough  and  uneven,  a  con- 
dition that  seriously  affects  the  result  obtained  with  the 
instrument.  The  internal  diameter  of  commercial  pipe  is 
not  strictly  uniform  and  is  difficult  to  obtain  with  exactness, 
and  as  this  factor  enters  into  the  Pitot  Tube  formula  as  the 
square  of  the  value,  any  error  in  the  measurement  of 
the  diameter  is  squared  in  its  percentage  eft'ect  upon 
the  final  result.  A  further  difficulty  is  presented  in  the 
necessity  of  placing  the  tube  in  the  cross  section  of  the 
pipe  at  the  point  of  average  velocity,  which  point  varies 
in  the  dift'erent  sizes  of  pipe,  and  for  different  conditions 
of  interior  surface.  A  better  plan  is  to  place  the  tip 
in  the  center  of  the  pipe  and  use  the  co-efficient  ob- 
tained by  actual  calibration  for  each  size  of  pipe.  If 
this  is  done  and  care  is  taken  to  see  that  the  interior  of  the 
pipe  is  free  from  sediment  or  dirt,  and  its  diameter  where 
the  tip  is  inserted  is  accurately  obtained,  ver\^  satisfactory^ 
results  may  be  obtained  in  the  held  with  the  Pitot  Tube. 
In  all  cases,  a  free  run  of  at  least  forty  feet  of  pipe  of  the 
same  size  as  that  in  which  the  tube  is  inserted  must  be  in- 
stalled on  the  inlet  side  of  the  tube,  and  ten  feet  on  the 
outlet,  and  there  must  be  no  fittings  or  obstructions  nearer 
to  the  tube  than  these  distances. 

346 


MEASUREMENT     OF    FLOWING     GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

The  best  use  of  the  Pitot  Tube  is  (jl)tained  where  it  is 
especially  designed  for  permanent  installation,  and  when 
properly  built  and  installed  it  becomes  a  scientific  instru- 
ment of  high  precision.  It  should  be  constructed  of  a  care- 
fully made  steel  tip  having  a  hole  about  one-quarter  inch  in 
diameter,  inserted  in  the  exact  center  of  a  seamless  drawn 
brass  tube  with  interior  surface  highly  polished  and  gauged 
to  accurate  and  uniform  size  throughout  its  length.  The  tip 
should  be  mounted  in  a  saddle  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
capable  of  being  removed  with  ease  for  cleaning,  and  of 
being  reinserted  so  as  to  occupy  exactly  the  same  position  as 
before  removal.  The  size  of  the  brass  tube  used  is  determined 
by  the  quantity  of  gas  to  be  measured,  and  is  so  chosen  as  to 
produce  velocities  much  higher  than  those  encountered  in  the 
main  pipe  lines,  in  order  to  give  a  high  differential  or  impact 
pressure  reading,  thus  greatly  increasing  the  accuracy  of  the 
instrument  by  diminishing  the  error  of  obser^^ation.  Each 
tube  must  be  calibrated  against  a  standard  tube  and  a  co- 
efficient obtained,  which,  when  multiplied  into  the  square  root 
of  the  product  of  the  differential  pressure  and  the  static 
pressure  (in  absolute  units),  will  give  the  flow  in  unit  time. 

These  high  precision  tubes  are  usually  installed  in  bat- 
teries of  two  or  more,  for  obtaining  measurements  of  a  wide 
range  of  flows,  and  must  have  a  sufficient  run  of  pipe  of  the 
same  size  as  the  tube,  both  ahead  and  behind  them,  to  avoid 
eddies  and  counter  currents  in  the  flow.  The  polished  in- 
terior surface  of  the  tube,  and  the  high  velocitv  of  the  gas 
prevent  the  formation  of  deposits  and  the  tube  co-efficient 
thus  remains  constant  for  a  long  period.  Should  any 
accident  occur  whereby  the  tube  becomes  dented  or  injured 
in  any  way,  it  is  necessary  to  have  it  repaired  and  recali- 
brated to  obtain  a  new  co-efficient. 

The  Pitot  Tube  is  usually  used  with  water  readings  up  to 
30,  or  even  36  inches.  Above  this  value  the  U  gauge  becomes 
cumbersome.     It  is  not  practical  to  use  it  with  a  dift'erential 

347 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 

lower  than  one  inch  of  water,  as  at  this  value  an  error  of 
observation  of  0.02  inches  will  produce  an  error  in  Q  of  one 
per  cent.  Its  practical  working  range  is  therefore  6  to  1,  i.  e., 
it  will  give  values  within  one  per  cent,  of  correct  from  maxi- 
mum capacity  down  to  one-sixth  maximum.  For  vers^  accu- 
rate work  this  range  is  usually  cut  down  to  about  4  to  1, 
corresponding  to  minimum  water  reading  of  about  2.25 
inches.  In  other  words,  a  tube  with  a  capacity  of  100,000 
cu.  ft.  per  hour  at  a  certain  pressure  would  have  accuracy 
down  to  25,000  cu.  ft.  per  hour. 

It  also  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Pitot  Tube  observa- 
tions must  be  made  every  fifteen  minutes  during  the  twenty- 
four  hours.  This  requires  the  services  of  two  men  working 
twelve-hour  shifts. 


Orifice  Meter^ — The  heavy 
upkeep  of  the  Pitot  Tube  as 
a  measuring  device  for  natural 
gas  made  its  use  limited,  but 
from  this  invention  the  orifice 
meter  was  devised  by  John 
G.  Pew  and  H.  C.  Cooper,  of 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1911. 

This  type  of  meter  is  es- 
pecially adapted  for  measuring 
high  pressure  gas  in  small  or 
large  volumes  at  the  edge  of 
the  tow^n  or  city  or  in  the  field 
at  the  wells. 

The  orifice  meter  consists  of  an  orifice  in  a  thin  plate 
inserted  in  the  pipe  line,  the  differential  pressure  around  it 
being  obtained  by  means  of  an  encased  recording  low  pres- 
sure gauge  or  a  specially  constructed  differential  gauge, 
w^hile  the  static  pressure  is  obtained  by  an  ordinary  record- 
ing pressure  gauge. 

348 


Fig.  129— mix   ORIFICE 
Used  in  Orifice  Meter  Flange  Fig. Xo. 130 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING     GAS     IN    PIPE    LINES 


Fig.  130— ORIFICE   METER  FLANGE 


Fig.  131— ORIFICE   METER 
CASTING 


Fig.  132— JET  ORIFICE 

Used  in  Orifice  Meter  Castiug 

Fig.  No.  131 


349 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

The  formula  for  computing  flow  by  means  of  the  orifice 
meter  is  identical  with  that  for  the  Pitot  Tube  except  that 
the  co-efficient  for  an  orifice  of  given  size  is  smaller  than 
that  of  a  tube  of  the  same  size,  due  to  the  lower  "efficiency," 
or  co-efficient  of  flow. 

If  the  true  co-efficient  of  an  orifice  is  known,  it  furnishes 
an  accurate  means  of  measuring  gas. 


350 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


1  -ORIFICE 

B  -Bcor 

C  -COfCff 

J)  -  CNO  fi^/vce 

C-O/IOQS    CO^A/€CT/0/V 

.rn  F -DR///A/ 


Fig.  134—SECTIOXAL    VIEW  OF  OXE    TYPE  OF  ORIFICE   METER 


Orifices — Gas  is  being  measured  by  many  types  of 
orifices  developed  bv  many  experimenters  with  various 
methods  of  connecting  the  pressure  pipes. 

Among  these  should  be  mentioned  the  thin  plate  with 
the  cylindrical  hole  in  which  the  plates  vary  from  1-32"  to 
ig"  in  thickness;  plates  of  varying  thickness  from  1^4"  to  J4" 
drawn  down  by  bevelling  at  various  angles  to  a  thin  edge 
usuallv  in  the  center  or  up-stream  side  of  the  plate;  plates 
with  cylindrical  holes  from  V  to  2"  thick. 

The  orifice  plates  are  made  of  various  materials  such  as 
soft  iron,  coated  with  German  silver  to  prevent  corrosion; 
mild  steel  boiler  plates;  case-hardened  or  tempered  steel. 

The  reason  for  the  use  of  these  various  materials,  is  the 
theory  as  to  the  action  of  the  gas  on  the  disc.  The  plating 
or  coating  is  based  on  the  theory  that  the  principal  danger 
is  change  in  area  of  the  orifice  by  corrosion.  The  hardened 
steel  is  based  on  the  theory  that  the  principal  danger  is  a 
change  in  area  from  scouring  or  sand-blasting  of  the  hole. 
The  mild  steel  plates  are  used  on  the  assumption,  that 
neither  of  the  two  eHects  mentioned  above  is  a  source  of 
serious  trouble,  but  that  the  important  thing  is  to  be  able 
to  machine  the  orihce  to  an  exact  micrometer  dimension  so 

351 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 

that  the  capacity  can  be  determined  by  measurement  of  the 
orifice  and  the  use  of  a  pre-determined  co-efficient,  without 
individual  cahbrations  for  each  disc ;  the  principle  being  self- 
evident,  that  more  accurate  calibrations  can  be  made  for  a 
determination  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  standard  for 
all  meters  than  is  possible  in  individual  calibrations  for  each 
individual  meter.  Those  advocating  case-hardened  orifices 
or  orifices  requiring  indi\adual  calibration  believe  that  corro- 
sion and  wear  are  more  dangerous  to  accuracy  than  possible 
vagaries  in  individual  calibrations. 

Recording  Differential  Gauge s^There  are  two  types  of 
recording  differential  gauges  for  use  with  the  orifice  meter, 
the  encased  and  open  type. 

The  former  consists  of  a  common  recording  differential 
gauge  with  chart  graduated  in  inches  of  water  pressure.  Its 
maximum  range  of  pressure  is  either  sixty  or  one  hundred 
inches  of  water.  This  gauge  is  encased  within  a  heavy 
casting  with  two  peep  holes  through  the  cover.  The  cast- 
ing is  slightly  larger  than  the  gauge,  with  a  cover  bolted  on 
and  is  made  to  stand  high  pressure.  A  recording  water 
pressure  gauge  is  placed  within  the  casting  and  connected 
through  the  casting  with  the  high  or  up-stream  side  of  the 
orifice  flange  or  casting  by  a  small  sized  pipe,  either  three- 
eights  or  one-half  inch.  Another  small  pipe  connects  the 
gauge  casting  with  the  low  or  down-stream  side  of  the  orifice 
flange  or  casting.  The  gas  from  the  up-stream  side  of  the 
orifice  exerts  a  pressure  upon  the  outside  of  the  gauge  spring 
and  the  gas  from  the  down-stream  side  of  the  orifice  exerts 
on  the  inside  of  the  spring,  a  slightly  lower  pressure  due  to 
the  friction  of  the  gas  passing  through  the  orifice,  and  the 
gauge  registers  the  difference  in  inches  of  water  pressure. 


352 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


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353 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


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354 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

1 1  requires  several  minutes  to  change  the  charts  on  this 
t\'pe  of  gauge ;  but  there  is  no  shaft  working  through  a  stuffing 
box,  so  that  the  sHght  friction  found  in  the  open  type 
gauge  is  ehminated. 

The  other  type  of  gauge  is  a  special  type  in  which  the 
spring  only  is  encased  and  surrounded  by  high  pressure  gas 
and  the  movement  of  the  spring  is  transmitted  to  the 
marking  arm  on  the  chart  by  a  small  axle  passing  through  a 
stuffing  box. 

All  recording  differential  gauges  are  very  sensitive  and 
nuist  be  tested  with  a  water  column  periodically. 

Mercury  Float  Recording  Differential  Gauge — In  this 
gauge  the  pressure  acts  directly  upon  a  seal  of  mercury  in 
a  pot,  with  the  float  following  the  mercury  level  and  trans- 
mitting to  the  marking  arm  on  the  chart,  by  means  of  a  shaft 
and  stuffing  box,  any   variation  in  the  differential  pressure. 


Fifi.  135— Mercury  Float  Recording 
Differential  and  Static  Pressure 
Gauge.  This  gauge  carries  two 
pen   arms   marking  on   one  chart 


Fig.  136 — Mercury  Float  Recording  Differ- 
ential Pressure  Gauge 


355 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

There  are  two  advantages  in  this  gauge,  first,  a  sudden 
rise  in  the  differential  pressure,  which  might  strain  or  injure 
the  gauge,  would  blow  the  mercury  seal  without  injury  to 
the  gauge.  The  mercury  is  put  in  the  pot  after  the  gauge 
is  installed  in  the  field  and  in  event  of  the  seal  being  blown 
the  mercur}^  pot  can  be  refilled  to  the  proper  level  or,  till  the 
marking  arm  on  the  chart  rests  at  zero. 

Second,  the  mercury  float  gauge  will  measure  gas  carry- 
ing a  high  percentage  of  sulphur  without  affecting  the  gauge. 

With  the  spring  recording  gauge,  if  the  differential  pres- 
sure should  rise  suddenly,  it  would  be  liable  to  strain  the 
gauge  making  it  necessary  to  return  it  to  the  factory  for  re- 
pairs and  test.  Sulphur  gas  will  corrode  the  spring,  mak- 
ing it  useless. 

Static  Pressure  Recording  Gauge  for  Orifice  Meters — 
With  the  encased  recording  differential  gauge  it  is  necessary 
to  use  a  separate  static  recording  gauge. 

With  the  open  type  the  static  pressure  spring  is  incor- 
porated within  the  differential  gauge  case,  and  two  marking 
arms  record  both  the  static  and  differential  pressures  on  one 
chart,  one  marking  with  red  and  the  other  with  black  ink. 

Information  Necessary  in  Ordering  Orifice  Meters — 

In  ordering  Orifice  Meters  always  give  the  following  in- 
formation : 

Estimate  of  the  maximum  volume  per  hour  at  the  maxi- 
mum pressure. 

Estimate  of  the  maximum  volume  per  hour  at  the  mini- 
mum pressure. 

Estimate  of  the  minimum  volume  per  hour  at  the  maxi- 
mum pressure. 

Estimate  of  the  minimum  volume  per  hour  at  the  mini- 
mum pressure. 

Specific  Gravity  of  the  gas. 

Size  of  the  pipe  line. 

356 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 

vSelling  or  buying  base. 

Average  temperature  of  the  gas. 

The  Specific  Gravity  of  the  gas  should  be  taken  periodic- 
ally, as  it  is  liable  to  change.  As  gas  wells  grow  old  their 
gravity  has  a  tendency  to  become  higher.  Unless  the  true 
specific  gravity  of  the  gas  is  known  and  the  co-efficient  cor- 
rected for  same,  the  Orifice  Meter  will  not  measure  the  gas 
accurately. 

An  orifice  flange  may  be  placed  in  any  sized  line  by  re- 
ducing or  increasing  the  line  at  the  orifice,  so  as  to  have  at 
least  twenty  feet  of  pipe  of  the  same  size  diameter  as  the 
flange  on  either  side  of  the  orifice. 

While  it  is  possible  to  install  a  four  inch  flange  in  an 
eight  inch  line  and  get  accurate  results,  it  is  advisable  to 
have  the  flange  the  same  size  as  the  line,  thereby  sav^ing  extra 
fittings. 

When  installing  an  orifice,  always  have  a  gate  on  either 
side  and  about  twenty  feet  from  the  flange.  This  will  allow 
the  changing  of  the  orifice  with  the  least  amount  of  gas 
loss. 


Fig.  U:  -MiniVAV    FIELD,   CALIF 
357 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


LARGE  CAPACITY  METER 

Large  Capacity  Meter — Where  the  volume  of  gas  or  air 
to  be  measured  exceeds  6,000  cubic  feet  per  hour,  or  the 
pressure  is  above  five  pounds,  the  most  practical  and  cheap- 
est method  of  measurement  is  by  a  proportional  or  large 
capacity  meter.  Many  gas  companies  use  a  large  capacity 
meter  to  measure  a  volume  of  gas  as  small  as  2,000  cubic 
feet  per  hour  at  a  low  pressure. 

While  it  is  true  that  in  the  early  days  of  large  volume, 
high  pressure  gas  measurement  the  proportional  meter  bore 
a  doubtful  reputation,  during  recent  years  many  improve- 
ments have  been  made  in  these  instruments,  and  they  have 
been  brought  to  a  high  standard  of  efficiency  and  accuracy. 

The  large  capacity  meter  is  a  most  important  instru- 
ment to  the  natural  gas  fraternity  and  without  doubt  there 
is  less  known  about  it  by  the  actual  caretaker  than  about 
anv  other  piece  of  apparatus  under  his  care.  It  is  seldom 
taken  into  consideration  that  it  is  a  hard-worked  piece  of 
machinery,  receiving  little  care  and  attention.  ]Many  in- 
stances are  known  where  large  capacity  meters  were  not 
even  cleaned,  although  in  constant  use  for  a  period  of  tw^o 
vears  or  longer.  While  as  a  rule  it  is  not  good  policy  to 
repair  a  meter  in  the  field  without  subsequent  testing,  never- 
theless there  are  a  great  many  things  that  may  happen  to  it 
which  would  only  call  for  the  tightening  of  a  nut  or  screw,  or 
replacing  some  part  that  would  not  affect  the  accuracy  of 
the  meter  whatever. 

The  large  capacity  meter,  like  any  other  sensitive 
instrument,  needs  attention.  It  is  often  blamed  for  a 
great  deal  of  inaccuracy  that  should  be  charged  to 
the  pipe  line.  If  a  meter  is  believed  to  be  inaccurate, 
it  should  be  very  carefully  tested  by  a  competent 
meter   man,    and    if   any     controversy    exists   it   would   be 

358 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


359 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


Fig.  139—500-LB.    TEST  LARGE  CAPACITY  METER 
With  Recording  '['olutne  and  Pyessurc  Gauge. 


policy  to  have  the  meter  tested  once  a  month  and  all  records 
of  tests  kept  on  file  at  the  gas  company's  office.  When  a 
gas  company,  selling  to  another  company  in  the  field,  decides 
to  have  a  test  made,  it  is  no  more  than  fair  (whether  a  dis- 
agreement exists  or  not)  that  the  other  interested  party 
should  be  asked  to  have  a  representative  present  during  the 
test.  The  results  of  the  test  should  not  be  kept  secret  but 
should  be  held  as  common  property  between  the  two  com- 
panies interested.  Secrecy  in  testing  meters  often  breeds 
trouble  and  creates  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  dissatisfaction. 

360 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 


H  -  Piro    taL^c 


Fig.  140—SECTIOXAL    VIEW  OF   A    LARGE  CAPACITY    METER 


Measure  gas  at  as  low  a  pressure  as  possible.  It  is  cus- 
tomary^ to  measure  gas  on  a  four  ounce  basis  unless  otherwise 
specified  in  a  preliminary  agreement.  A  great  many  field 
coinpanies  purchase  gas  on  an  eight  ounce  basis.  The  slight 
advantage  gained  by  this  increased  pressure  is  supposed  to 
offset  the  small  loss  caused  by  the  pipe  line  leakage. 

A  factor}^  meter  measuring  gas  at  a  low  pressure  will 
onl\'  measure  accurately  a  volume  of  low-pressure  gas  up  to 
its  rated  capacity  in  cubic  feet,  while  a  field  or  high-pressure 
meter  will  measure  accurately  a  volume  of  low-pressure  gas 
at  a  high  pressure  far  in  excess  of  the  rated  capacity  of  the 
meter,  entirely  dependent  upon  the  pressure.  For  example, 
a  10,000  cubic  foot  per  hour,  large  capacity  dry  meter  will 
measure  accuratelv  as  follows: 


361 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


Meter 
Reading 

Pressure 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Multiplier 

Actual  Amount 
of  Low  Pres- 
sure Gas 
Measured 

d  d  d 

.25 
100.00 
200.00 

1.0000 

7.8088 

14.6348 

10,000 

78,088 
146,348 

The  above  figures  are  given  under  the  assumption  that 
the  meter  is  working  up  to  its  maximum  capacity,  or  10,000 
cubic  feet  per  hour  meter  reading. 

To  determine  the  proper-sized  meter  to  measure  any 
volume  the  following  rule  is  followed : 

Divide  the  volume  of  gas  to  be  measured  per  hour  by 
the  multiplier  or  density  at  which  the  gas  is  to  be  measured 
and  it  will  give  the  meter  reading  for  which  to  select  the 
proper  sized  meter. 

Example: — If  it  is  desired  to  measure  146,348  cubic  feet 
of  low  pressure  gas  per  hour  at  a  pressure  of  200  pounds 
—  146,348  --  14.6348  =  10,000  ctibic  feet  per  hour  meter 
reading. 

Range  of  Accuracy  of  Large  Capacity  Meter — A  large 
capacity  meter  is  tested  and  corrected  to  within  two  per 
cent  of  accuracy  within  the  limits  of  its  capacity. 

Accurate  measurement  cannot  be  expected  below  a 
certain  minimum  volume  which  will  vary  according  to  the 
rated  capacity  of  the  meter.  From  the  writer's  experience, 
a  table  is  given  below  showing  a  reasonable  minimtim  range 
of  accuracy  for  meters  of  diflferent  types  and  rated  capa- 
cities. 

362 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING     GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


Capacity  of  Meter 
Cu.  ft.  per  hour. 
(Meter  Reading; 

Minimum  Range  of 

accuracy 

Cu.  ft.  per  hour 

(Meter  Reading) 

3,000 

500 

6,000 

700 

10,000 

900 

20,000 

1,800 

35,000 

3,600 

50,000 

3,600 

75,000 

3,600 

100,000 

3,600 

125,000 

7,200 

150,000 

10.800 

All  sizes  of  the  different  makes  are  tested  in  the  factor}- 
to  smaller  volumes  than  those  given  above  but  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  retain  this  accuracy  on  such  small  volumes  in  an 
instrument  that  was  designed  for  heavier  duty  both  as  to 
pressure  and  volume. 

For  volumes  under  1,000  cubic  feet  per  hour  it  is  best 
to  use  a  positive  meter. 

To  expect  any  type  or  make  of  meter  to  measure  a  wide 
range  of  volumes — for  example  a  20,000  cubic  feet  per  hour 
capacity  meter  to  measure  a  minimum  volume  of  600  cubic 
feet  per  hour  is  unreasonable.  It  might  be  likened  to  a 
merchant  weighing  a  pound  of  butter  with  a  set  of  hay 
scales. 

Where  in  the  same  pipe  line  it  is  necessary  to  measure 
large  and  small  volumes  of  extremely  wide  range  it  is  more 
reasonable  to  use  two  different  size  meters;  a  large  size  for 
the  large  volume  and  a  smaller  size  for  the  small  volume. 
By  so  doing  very  close  accuracy  can  be  obtained. 

A  large  capacity  meter  given  proper  care  and  used 
within  its  rated  capacity  will  prove  to  be  a  wonderfully 
accurate  measuring'  instrument. 


363 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


a  s  - 


364 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


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365 


MEASUREMENT     OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


366 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


Proving  Large  Capacity  Meters — Large  capacity  meters 
are  proved  in  the  factory  for  volume  with  air  at  four  inches 
water  pressure  corrected  to  the  barometer  and  thermometer 
readings  at  time  of  test.  The  proving  instruments  used  are 
the  standard  flow  meter,  funnel  meter,  large  prover  and 
Oliphant  Pitot  Tube.  The  latter  is  used  for  high  pressure 
proving.  In  field  proving,  an  additional  correction  is  made 
on  the  pressure  for  the  difference  between  the  specific  gravitv 
of  the  gas  and  the  air  (air  being  1). 

Pressure  Testing  of  Large  Capacity  Meters  Hydraulic 
water  pressure  is  used  in  testing  large 
capacity  meters  for  leaks,  imperfec- 
tions in  castings  and  strength  of  metal. 
Following  water  test,  air  under  high 
pressure  is  used. 

Fifty  pound  meters  are  tested  up 
to  seventy-five  pounds.  Two  hundred 
pound  meters  are  tested  up  to  two 
hundred    and    fifty    pounds.  Five 

himdred  pound  meters  are   tested   up 
to  five  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

Advantage  should  not  be  taken  of 
the  pressure  test  above  the  rated 
strength  of  the  meter,  as  this  addi- 
tional test  is  made  as  a  precautionary 
measure. 

Over  Capacity  in  Large  Capacity  Meters — All  dry  meters 
will  work  over  capacity  to  a  reasonable  extent,  especially  the 
small  sizes.  For  instance  the  6,000  cubic  feet  per  hour  meter 
will  measure  accurately  up  to  7,200  cubic  feet  per  hour.  It  is 
not  good  policy  to  take  advantage  of  this  over  capacity  con- 
stantly, but  if  used  occasionally  it  will  not  injure  the  meter. 

Invariably  the  differential  above  the  rated  capacity  of 
the  meter  increases  greatly  out  of  proportion  to  the  difl>r- 
ential  of  the  meter  within  capacity. 

367 


The 
Cane\ 

it   7C'</.' 


'Burning  WelL"  at 
.  Kans..  (1909)    after 
cap  fed  and  shut  in. 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


PRESSURES    TO    BE 


USED    IN     MEASURING     AIR 
BAROMETRIC  PRESSURES 


Standard  barometer 29.2  inches     Standard  temperature. 


Barometer  Reading 


28.6,28.7  28.8,28.9  29.0  29.1  29.2  29.3  29.4  29.5  29.6  29.7  29.8  29.9  30.0 


Pressure  in  Inches  of  Water 


I 
4.23|4. 
4.224. 

3214.214. 

334.204. 

34  4.20  4. 

35  4.19  4. 

36  4.18  4. 
374.174. 

38  4.16  4. 

39  4.15  4. 

40  4.14  4. 
414.14  4. 

42  4.13  4. 

43  4.12  4. 

44  4.1114. 

45  4.10  4. 
464.104. 
47i4.094. 
4814.08  4. 
494.07,4. 
504.064 
514.064 
524.054 
53  4.04  4 
544.034 
554.024 
564.02:4 
5714.01:4 
5814.004 
594.004 
603.994 
613.98  4 
62  3.97  3 
633.973 

64  3.96  3 

65  3.95  3 

66  3.94  3 
67;3.933 
683.933 
693.92;3 


2414.26 

244.25 
2314.24 
224.23 
214.22  4 
20  4.22  4 
19  4.214 


4.2014 
4.194 


4.18 

4.17 

4.17 

4.16  4 

4.154 

4.14i4 

4.I3I4 

4.12:4 

.1014.1214 

.094.114 

.0914.1014 

.0814.0914 

.07  4.08  4 

.06  4.08  4 

.05  4.07  4 

.054.064 

.04  4.05  4 

.034.044 

.02  4.04  4 

.014.034 

.014.024 

.0r4.02  4 

.00  4.01  4 

.99  4.00  4 

.98  3,99  4 

.97  3.99  4 

.96  3.98  3 

.96  3.97  3 

.95  3.96  3 

.94  3.96  3 

.93  3.95  3 


27  4.29 
27  4.28 
26  4.27 
25  4.26  4 
24  4.25  4 
23  4.25  4 
234.244 
214.234 
2114.22  4 
20  4.214 
194.204 
184.194 
174.194 
16  4.18  4 
164.17,4 
154.164 
144.154 
134.144 
12  4.14,4 
114.13:4 
114.12  4 
104.114 
094.104 
084.104 
074.094 
074.084 
,064.074 
05  4.06  4 
044.064 
044.054 
,03  4.04  4 
02  4.04  4 
.02  4.03  4 
,00  4.02  4 
,00  4.014 
,994.014 
,99  4.00  4 
.98  3.99  4 
,97  3.98  4 
.963.983 


.30  4.32  4 
.29  4.314, 
.294.30i4 
.28  4.29  4 
.27  4.28  4 
.26  4.27  4 
.25J4.274 
.244.26:4 
.23  4.25'4 
.23  4.24  4 
.224.234 
.2li4.224 
.204.224 
.194.214 
.18:4.20  4 
.184.1914 
.17i4.184 
.I6I4.I7I4 
.154.17|4 
.144.164 
.134.1514 
.13}4.144 
.124.134 
.1114. 12!4 
.104.124 
.09,4.114 
.094.104 
.08:4.094 
.07*4.094 
.064.084 
.0614.074 
.064.074 
.04  4.06  4 
.04  4.0514 
.034.04*4 
.024.0414 
.014.034 
.004.02|4 
.00,4.014 
.99  4.00  4 


33  4.35  4 
32  4.34  4 
3214.334 
314.32  4 
30  4.314 
29  4.30  4 
28  4.30  4 
274.29  4 
26  4.28  4 
25  4.27  4 
254.264 
24|4.25'4 
23  4.24  4 
22  4.24  4 
214.23  4 
20  4.22  4 
20  4.214 
19  4.20J4 
18  4.19j4 
17  4.19k 
16  4.18|4 
154.174 
15J4.1614 
144.154 
134.144 
124.1414 
ll|4.134 
114.124 
104.114 
094.104 
084.1014 
084.10;4 
074.08;4 
064.084 
06  4.074 
05  4.06  4 
04:4.054 
034.054 
034.044 
024.034 


36|4.38 
354.37 
3414.36 
34  4.35 
33  4.34 
32  4,33 
314.32 
30  4.32 
29  4,31 
28,4,30 
284.29 
27I4.28 
264,27 
25  4.26 
24  4.26 
23  4.25 
23  4.24 
22  4.23 
21  4.22 
204^21 
194.20 
184.20 
184.19 
174.18 
164.17 
154.17 
14,4.16 
134.15 
134.14 
12'4.13 
12J4.13 
114.12 
10!4.11 
094.11 
094.10 
084.09 
07  4.08 
07,4.08 
054.07 
054.06 


4.394 

4.3814 
4.37i4 
4.37  4 
4.36  4 
4.35  4 
4.34  4 
4.33  4 
4.324 
4.314 
4.30  4 
4.29  4 
4.29  4 
4.28  4 
4.27  4 
4.26  4 
4.254 
4.244 
4.244 
4.234 
4.224 
4.2l!4 
4.20  4 
4.204 
4.19:4 


4.42  4.44 
4.41  4.43 
4.40  4.42 
384.394.41 
374.394.40 
364.384.39 
354.374.38 
34  4.36  4.37 


4.354.37 


4.34 
4.33 
4.32 
4.32 


294.31 


4.36 
4.35 
4.34 
4.33 
4.32 


28  4.30  4.31 
28  4.29  4.30 
'^7  4.28  4.30 


4.29 
4.28 
4.27 
4.26 
4.25 


4.18 

4.17 

4.16 

4.15 

4.15 

4.14 

4.14 

4.13 

4.12 

4.11 

4.10  4 

4.094 

4.094 

4.084 

4.0714 


26  4.27 
25  4.27 
24  4.26 
23  4.25 
23  4.24 
22  4.23  4.25 
214.22  4.24 
20j4.21j4.22 
19'4.214.22 
194.2014.21 
18  4.19  4.20 


4.18 
4.17 
4.17 
4.16 
4.15 
4.15 
4.14 
.12  4.13 
.104.11 
.104.11 
.094.11 


4.20 
4.19 
4.18 
4.17 
4.16 
4.16 
4.15 
4.15 
4.13 
4.12 
4.12 


.094.104.11 


368 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


THROUGH      A     FUNNEL 
AND  TEMPERATURES 


METER     AT     DIFFERENT 


rO  dcg.  tahr.     Standard  pressure. 


inches  water 


g3 

Barometer  Reading 

u. 

28.6|28.7|28.8|28.9|29.0|29.l|29.2|29.3|29.4  29.5  29.6|29.7|29.8|29.9  30.0 

bo 

_Q_ 

Pressure  in  Inches  of  Water 

70 

3.91 

3.92 

3.94 

3.96 

3.97 

3.98 

4.00 

4.01 

4.02 

4.04 

4.06 

4.07 

4.07 

4.08 

4.10 

71 

3.91 

3.92 

3.94 

3.95 

3.96 

3.98 

3.99 

4.00 

4.02 

4.03 

4.05 

4.05 

4.05 

4.07 

4.09 

72 

3.91 

3.91 

3.93 

3.94 

3.96 

3.97 

3.99 

4.00 

4.01 

4.01 

4.02 

4.03 

4.05 

4.06 

4.08 

73 

3.90 

3.91 

3.92 

3.94 

3.95 

3.96 

3.98 

3.99 

4.00 

4.01 

4.02 

4.03 

4.05 

4.06 

4.08 

74 

3.90 

3.90 

3.91 

3.93 

3.94 

3.96 

3.97 

3.98 

4.00 

4.01 

4.02 

4.03 

4.06 

4.06 

4.07 

75 

3.88 

3.90 

3.90 

3.92 

3.93 

3.95 

3.96 

3.97 

3.98 

4.00 

4.02 

4.03 

4.03 

4.04 

4.06 

76 

3.87 

3.88 

3.89 

3.90 

3.93 

3.94 

3.95 

3.96 

3.97 

4.00 

4.01 

4.01 

4.02 

4.04 

4.06 

77 

3.86 

3.88 

3.89 

3.90 

3.92 

3.93 

3.95 

3.96 

3.97 

3.99 

4.01 

4.01 

4.03 

4.04 

4.06 

78 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.89 

3.91 

3.92 

3.94 

3.95 

3.97 

3.98 

3.99 

40.1 

4.02 

4.03 

4.05 

79 

3.85 

3.86 

3.88 

3.89 

3.90 

3.92 

3.93 

3.94 

3.96 

3.97 

3.98 

4.00 

4.01 

4.02 

4.04 

80 

3.84 

3.85 

3.87 

3.89 

3.90 

3.91 

3.92 

3.94 

3.95 

3.96 

3.98 

3.99 

4.00 

4.01 

4.03 

81 

3.84 

3.85 

3.86 

3.88 

3.89 

3.90 

3.91 

3.93 

3.94 

3.96 

3.98 

3.99 

4.00 

4.01 

4.02 

82 

3.83 

3.84 

3.85 

3.87 

3.88 

3.90 

3.92 

3.93 

3.95 

3.96 

3.98 

3.99 

4.00 

4.00 

4.01 

83 

3.82 

3.84 

3.85 

3.86 

3.88 

3.89 

3.90 

3.91 

3.93 

3.94 

3.96 

3.97 

3.98 

3.99 

4.00 

84 

3.82 

3.83 

3.85 

3.86 

3.86 

3.89 

3.90 

3.91 

3.93 

3.94 

3.96 

3.97 

3.97 

3.99 

4.00 

85 

3.81 

3.82 

3.84 

3.85 

3.86 

3.88 

3.88 

3.90 

3.91 

3.92 

3.94 

3.95 

3.96 

3.98 

3.99 

86 

3.80 

3.81 

3.83 

3.84 

3.85 

3.87 

3.88 

3.89 

3.90 

3.92 

3.93 

3.95 

3.96 

3.97 

3.99 

87 

3.80 

3.80 

3.82 

3.83 

3.84 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.89 

3.90 

3.92 

3.94 

3.95 

3.97 

3.98 

88 

3.79 

3.80 

3.81 

3.83 

3.84 

3.85 

3.87 

3.88 

3.89 

3.90 

3.91 

3.93 

3.95 

3.96 

3.97 

89 

3.78 

3.80 

3.81 

3.82 

3.84 

3.84 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.89 

3.91 

3.92 

3.94 

3.95 

3.97 

90 

3.77 

3.79 

3.80 

3.82 

3.83 

3.84 

3.85 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.90 

3.91 

3.93 

3.95 

3.96 

91 

3.76 

3.78 

3.80 

3.81 

3.83 

3.84 

3.84 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.90 

3.91 

3.92 

3.94 

3.96 

92 

3.76 

3.77 

3.79 

3.81 

3.82 

3.82 

3.83 

3.85 

3.86 

3.87 

3.89 

3.90 

3.91 

3.93 

3.94 

93 

3.75 

3.76 

3.78 

3.79 

3.80 

3.82 

3.83 

3.84 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.89 

3.90 

3.92 

3.93 

94 

3.75 

3.76 

3.77 

3.78 

3.79 

3.81 

3.82 

3.&4 

3.85 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.90 

3.91 

3.92 

95 

3.74 

3.75 

3.76 

3.78 

3.79 

3.81 

3.82 

3.83 

3.84 

3.85 

3.86 

3.88 

3.89 

3.91 

3.92 

96 

3.74 

3.75 

3.76 

3.77 

3.78 

3.80 

3.81 

3.82 

3.84 

3.86 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.90 

3.91 

97 

3.73 

3.74 

3.75 

3.77 

3.78 

3.79 

3.80 

3.82 

3.84 

3.85 

3.87 

3.87 

3.89 

3.89 

3.90 

98 

3.72 

3.74 

3.75 

3.76 

3.77 

3.78 

3.80 

3.81 

3.82 

3.83 

3.85 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.90 

99 

3.71 

3.73 

3.73 

3.75 

3.77 

3.78 

3.79 

3.80 

3.81 

3.83 

3.84 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

3.89 

100 

3.71 

3.72 

3.72 

3.74 

3.76 

3.77 

3.78 

3.79 

3.80 

3.82 

3.83 

3.85 

3.86 

3.87 

3.88 

101 

3.70 

3.71 

3.72 

3.74 

3.75 

3.76 

3.77 

3.79 

3.80 

3.81 

3.83 

3.84 

3.85 

3.86 

3.88 

102 

3.69 

3.70 

3.71 

3.73 

3.74 

3.75 

3.76 

3.78 

3.79 

3.81 

3.82 

3.83 

3.84 

3.85 

3.87 

103 

3.68 

3.70 

3.71 

3.72 

3.74 

3.75 

3.76 

3.77 

3.79 

3.80 

3.81 

3.83 

3.84 

3.85 

3.87 

104 

3.67 

3.69 

3.70 

3.71 

3.72 

3.74 

3.75 

3.76 

3.78 

3.79 

3.80 

3.81 

3.83 

3.84 

3.86 

105 

3.67 

3.68 

3.70 

3.71 

3.72 

3.73 

3.74 

3.76 

3.77 

3.79 

3.80 

3.81 

3.83 

3.84 

3.85 

106 

3.66 

3.68 

3.69 

3.70 

3.72 

3.73 

3.74 

3.76 

3.77 

3.78 

3.79 

3.80 

3.82 

3.83 

3.84 

107 

3.66 

3.68 

3.68 

3.70 

3.71 

3.72 

3.73 

3.75 

3.76 

3.78 

3.79 

3.80 

3.81 

3.83 

3.84 

108 

3.65 

3.67 

3.68 

3.69 

3.70 

3.72 

3.73 

3.74 

3.75 

3.77 

3.78 

3.79 

3.80 

3.82 

3.83 

369 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


Fig.  lU—LOW  PRESSURE  GAUGE 

Used  in  proving  Large  Capacity  Meters.     Can  be  used  as  a  Differential  Gauge, 

also  for  proving  Domestic  Meters 


370 


MEASUREMENT     OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


Table  Giving  Percentages  Fast  ( +  i  and  Slow  (  —  )  with 
Correcting  Factors  to  be  Used  in  Testing  Large  Capa- 
city Meters  with  the  Funnel  Meter.  All  Figures  Given 
on  the  Basis  of  an  1^  •/'  Orifice  Passing  One  Cubic  Foot 
Per  Second  at  a  Four  Inch  Water  Pressure  Corrected 
for  Barometer  and  Thermometer  Changes  and  for 
Specific  Gravity  of  Gas  Used. 


Fast  Meters 

1 

Slow  Meters 

Time 

Per  Cent. 

Correct- 

Time 

Percent. 

Correct- 

Required 

by  Meter 

to  Register 

100  Cu.  Ft. 

in  Seconds 

Fast 

(Funnel 

Meter 

being 

Standard) 

ing 

Factor. 

Deduct 

Meter 

Reading 

Percent. 

Required 
by  Meter  ' 
to  Regis- 
ter 100 
Cu.  Ft.     ; 
in  Seconds, 

Slow 

Funnel 

Meter 

being 

Standard 

ing 

Factor. 

Add  to 

Meter 

Reading 

Percent. 

100 

0.  K. 

none 

100         ' 

0.  K. 

none 

99 

1      + 

1 

101 

.9— 

1 

98 

2      + 

2 

102 

1.9— 

2 

97 

3     + 

3 

103 

2.9— 

3 

96 

4.1  + 

4 

104 

3.8— 

4 

95 

5.2  + 

5 

105 

4.7— 

5 

94 

6.3  + 

6 

106 

5.6— 

6 

93 

7.5  + 

7 

107 

6.5— 

7 

92 

8.6  + 

8 

108 

7.4— 

8 

91 

9.8  + 

9 

109 

8.2— 

9 

90 

11.1  + 

10 

110 

9.   — 

10 

89 

12.3  + 

11 

111 

9.9— 

11 

88 

13.6  + 

12 

112 

10.7— 

12 

87 

14.9  + 

13 

113 

11.5— 

13 

86 

16.2  + 

14 

■        114 

12.2— 

14 

85 

17.6  + 

15 

,        115 

13.  — 

15 

84 

19.    + 

16         i 

116 

13  7 

16 

83 

20.4  + 

17         ' 

117 

14.5 

17 

82 

21.9  + 

18 

118 

15.2 

18 

81 

23.4  + 

19       ; 

119 

15.9 

19 

80 

25.    + 

20         ' 

120 

16.6 

20 

79 

26.5  + 

21 

1        121 

17.3 

21 

78 

28.1  + 

22 

122 

18.   — 

22 

77 

29.8  + 

23 

123 

18.6— 

23 

76 

31.5  + 

24 

:        124 

19.3— 

24 

75 

33.3  + 

25 

1        125 

20.   — 

25 

74 

35.1  + 

26 

126 

20.6— 

26 

73 

36.9  + 

27 

127 

21.2— 

27 

72 

38.8^ 

28 

128 

21.8— 

28 

Example: — If  a  meter  passes  100  cubic  feet  in  SO  seconds  the  meter  is  25  per 
cent,  fast  on  a  ba.sis  of  the  funnel  being  standard  but  the  correcting  factor  being 
20,  to  correct  meter  reading,  deduct  20  per  cent. 


371 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


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I.  145— CHART    TO   DETERMINE    THE   VOLUME    OF  LOW  PRESSURE 
GAS  OR  AIR 

A  Large  Capacity  Dry  Meter  -will  measure  at  different  high  pressures 
per  hour  and  per  day 


Installation — It  is  essential  to  use  the  proper  amount  of 
pipe  on  the  inlet  of  the  meter  as  designated  in  the  directions 
accompanying  the  meter.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  an 
8-inch  meter,  at  least  eight  feet  or  more  of  8-inch  pipe 
should  be  used  into  the  inlet  flange.  The  meters  are  tested 
under  these  conditions  in  the  factory  and  if  the  directions 
are  not  followed  (as  by  use  of  4-inch  pipe  directly  into  an 
8-inch  meter,  or  by  placing  an  ell,  gate,  or  regulator  within 
less  than  eight  feet  from  the  inlet  flange  of  an  8-inch  meter) 
the  tendency  would  be  to  create  counter  currents  or  eddies 
and  cause  the  meter  to  run  slow. 

All  large  capacity  meters  should  be  set  absolutely  level 
on  a  solid  foundation,  concrete  being  the  most  desirable. 
In  measuring  gas  in  the  field  under  high  pressure  in  cold 
weather,  the  very  best  results  are  obtained  by  using  a  system 

372 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

of  heatin^^  without  l)rin^in<;'  the  lire  in  too  close  j)roxiinit\'  to 
the  meter  location  in  the  interior  of  the  buildin^^.  This  can 
be  done  by  using  6-  or  8-inch  pipe  or  casing,  building  your 
torch  hre  ten  or  twelve  feet  away  from  the  building,  and 
constructing  your  flue  and  chimney  from  the  lire  directh' 
through  the  building  to  the  further  end,  then  through  the 
roof.  That  portion  of  pipe  between  the  fire  and  the  building, 
with  the  exception  of  directly  at  the  location  of  fire,  can  be 
banked  over  with  dirt,  thereby  preventing  radiation  of  the 
heat  until  after  the  pipe  enters  the  building.  This  method 
merely  conducts  the  burnt  gases  and  heat  through  the  6-  or 
8-inch  pipe  or  casing  into  the  building  and  through  the  roof, 
thereby  having  the  same  effect  as  steam,  but  without  any 
danger  of  explosion. 

Cleaning — The  question  is  often  asked,  "How  often  shall 
we  clean  our  meter.-*"  This  is  a  hard  question  to  answer  for 
the  very  reason  that  there  are  no  two  conditions  found  to  be 
alike  in  the  gas  that  passes  through  the  meter.  It  is  better 
to  clean  the  meter  too  often  than  not  often  enough.  One 
can  judge  by  the  condition  the  meter  is  found  to  be  in  at 
each  cleaning. 

By-Pass — It  is  considered  objectionable  by  the  majority 
of  gas  people  to  use  a  by-pass  around  the  meter  on  account 
of  the  liability  of  leakages  in  the  gate,  thereby  causing  loss 
of  measurement.  Where  meters  are  in  use  twenty-four 
hours  a  day  (such  as  at  glass  factories  and  cement  plants), 
and  there  is  no  possibility  of  shutting  the  gas  off  to  make 
a  test  or  repair  to  the  large  capacity  meter,  a  by-pass  is 
very  essential  unless  a  duplicate  meter  is  used.  The  method 
of  employing  two  meters,  one  in  case  of  emergency,  is 
seldom  used,  due  to  the  heavy  cost. 

In  the  cases  above  mentioned  the  by-pass  method  can  be 
employed  without  any  loss  whatever  b\'  the  use  of  double 
gates  and  tw^o  pieces  of  pipe  between  the  gates,  with  an 
expansion  sleeve  that  can  readily  be  detached  after  the  test 

373 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 

or  repair  of  meter.  This  leaves  the  by -pass  broken  and  the 
gates  can  be  plugged  except  when  the  by-pass  is  actually 
needed  to  allow  the  repair  or  test  of  the  large  capacity  meter. 


Turning  Gas  Into  a  Meter — While  this  may  seem  a 
simple  subject,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  instructions 
that  can  be  given  in  the  care  of  large  capacity  meters,  es- 
pecially in  measuring  high  pressure  gas. 

374 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

Proper  Sized  Meter  to  Install  Where  Gas  is  Used  to  Generate 
Power  Either  in  a  Gas  Engine  or  Under  Steam  Boilers. 


Capacity 

OF  Meter 

Capacity 

OF  Meter 

Horse- 

In Cu.  Ft 

per  Hour 

InCu.  Ft 

.  per  Hour 

power 

Horsepower 
of  Engine 

of  Engine 

or  Boilers 

In  Gas 

Under 

or  Boilers 

In  Gas 

Under 

Engine 

Steam 
Boiler 

Engine 

Steam 
Boiler 

10 

500 

800 

150 

3.000 

10,000 

15 

500 

1.500 

200 

6.000 

20,000 

20 

800 

1,500 

300 

6.000 

20,000 

25 

800 

3.000 

400 

10.000 

35,000 

35 

1,500 

3.000 

500 

10.000 

35,000 

50 

1,500 

6.000 

600 

10.000 

50.000 

75 

3,000 

6.000      i 

800 

20.000 

50,000 

100 

3,000 

10.000 

1000 

20.000 

75,000 

Fis-  147— FLO  WO  METER  FOR    PRO]'F\C;  LARGE   CAPACITY  METERS 
IX    THE  FACTORY 

375 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

Gas  should  be  turned  into  the  inlet  first,  very  slowly, 
and  when  pressure  in  the  meter  equals  the  pressure  in  the 
line  ahead  of  the  meter,  open  outlet  gate  very  slowly. 

Turn  gas  into  a  field  meter  with  the  same  precaution  you 
would  use  in  starting  an  automobile.  By  that  it  is  meant — 
start  on  low  gear,  advance  to  second  then  after  car  is  under 
way  throw  the  gears  into  high  speed.  It  is  just  as  harmful 
to  turn  high  pressure  gas  into  a  meter  suddenly  as  it  is  to 
start  an  automobile  on  high  gear  or  speed. 

Condensation — All  natural  gas  direct  from  the  well 
carries  more  or  less  aqueous  vapor. 

Condensation  in  pipe  lines,  regulators  and  large  capacity 
meters  is  caused  by  the  difference  of  temperature  of  the  gas 
and  air.  If  the  gas  is  warmer  than  the  air  the  condensation 
will  be  on  the  interior  of  the  pipe,  regulator  or  meter;  and  if 
the  gas  is  colder  than  the  air,  the  condensation  will  be  on  the 
exterior.  This  condensation  is  commonly  called  sweating, 
being  the  moisture  condensed  from  the  atmosphere  surround- 
ing the  pipe. 

A  gas  torch  placed  on  a  gas  line  directly  back  of  a  drip 
will  cause  condensation  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  drip  where 
the  condensed  vapor  is  taken  care  of  and  greatly  protects 
the  meter  or  regulator  if  located  ahead  of  and  near  the  drip. 

Drain  Cocks — All  meters  should  be  installed  with  drain 
cocks  on  the  inlet  and  outlet  bowls  to  keep  the  meter  abso- 
lutely dry.  The  fact  that  the  gas  in  the  well  is  dry  is  no 
guide  to  go  by,  for  the  reason  that  the  gas  may  carry  aqueous 
vapor  which  might  find  conditions  en  route  from  well  to  the 
meter  causing  it  to  condense  into  free  water. 

Lighting  Measuring  Stations — Where  possible  in  in- 
stalling a  meter  or  regulator  station,  equip  the  house  with 
one  or  two  electric  light  bulbs  with  long  wiring.  Use  wire 
cage  over  bulb.  Place  switch  on  outside  of  building  or  on 
some  adjacent  post  or  tree.     Lightning  arresters  should  be 

used. 

376 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 

Large  Capacity  Meter  Gaskets  For  .")()  lb.  and  20U  lb. 
meters  use  soft  cardboard  about  A -inch  thick.  Apply  white 
lead  on  both  sides  of  gasket. 

For  500  lb.  meters  use  asbestos  board  ^-inch  thick. 
Dampen  before  using.  Apply  coating  of  asphaltum  on  both 
sides  of  gasket  after  dampening. 

To  Read  a  Large  Capacity  Meter — In  reading  a  meter  the 
small  or  100-foot  dial  should  not  be  considered.  Each  sub- 
division in  the  circle  represents  one-tenth  of  the  figures  placed 
above  the  circle.  In  other  words,  on  the  10,000  dial,  if  the 
hand  pomts  between  7  and  8,  the  figure  the  hand  has  just 
passed  (which  would  be  7)  indicates  that  over  7,000  cubic 
feet  have  passed.  The  1000-foot  dial  is  only  taken  into  con- 
sideration when  the  hand  points  between  5  and  0,  in  which 
case  it  is  counted  as  1,000.  In  the  foregoing  case,  if  the  hand 
on  the  10,000-foot  dial  was  close  to  8  and  the  hand  in  the 
1000-foot  dial  pointed  at  8  or  9,  the  reading  of  the  10,000- 
foot  dial  would  be  8,000.  Each  dial  above  the  10,000-foot 
dial  is  read  the  same  as  the  10,000-foot  dial  above  described. 

In  reading  the  dial  no  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
wording  "one  per  cent."  or  "two  per  cent."  printed  on  the 
face  of  the  dial.  The  wording  is  intended  for  use  when  order- 
ing new  clock  or  tally,  and  has  no  bearing  on  the  meter 
reading. 

Field  Testing — During  the  past  few  years  testing  in  the 
field  with  the  funnel  meter  has  become  very  common.  Xo 
doubt  there  are  objections  to  this  method,  but  on  the  other 
hand  there  are  advantages  gained  that  cannot  be  obtained 
by  shipping  the  meter  to  the  factory  for  repairs  and  test. 
For  instance,  the  natural  jarring  and  knocking  about  that 
a  meter  receives  en  route  from  the  lease  location  to  the 
factory,  may  cause  a  great  deal  of  the  dirt  collected  on  the 
valves  to  be  jarred  off,  preventing  the  owner  from  obtaining 
a  true  test  of  what  it  was  doing  while  in  actual  ser\'ice  in 
the  field.     It  is  also  true  that  a  large  capacity  meter  in  the 

377 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 

field  can  be  tested  with  the  funnel  meter  and  repaired  under 
average  circumstances  in  a  period  of  a  few  hours,  or  not  to 
exceed  two  or  three  days.  The  old  method  generally  kept 
the  meter  out  of  service  for  a  period  of  from  two  to  six 
weeks  while  being  tested  and  repaired  at  the  factory. 

The  error  generally  allowed  in  the  field  is  3  per  cent, 
fast  or  slow,  while  the  factory  is  confined  to  a  2  per  cent, 
error  either  fast  or  slow. 

Funnel  Meter — While  it  is  true  that  the  funnel  meter  is 
a  simple  instrument,  yet  in  order  to  obtain  reliable  results 
with  it,  it  is  very  essential  that  the  operator  should  be 
experienced  in  the  use  of  the  instrument  and  at  the  same 
time  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  how  to  repair  and  cor- 
rect the  meter  being  tested.  The  proper  place  to  gain  this 
experience  is  at  the  factory.  The  most  successful  combina- 
tion to  make  a  large  capacity  meter  expert  is  the  actual 
experience  in  the  field  with  experience  of  large  capacity 
meter  testing  derived  in  the  factory. 

Great  care  should  be  used  not  only  in  handling  but  in 
storing  the  funnel  meter  when  not  in  use.  The  edge  of  the 
different  orifices  should  be  kept  perfectly  dry.     Rusting  of 


.....i^iiik, 


CI  A 

'  ^ « » I 


Fig.  148— FUNNEL  METER  WITH  DETACHABLE  HEAD 
37S 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING     GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


379 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 

the  edges  of  the  orifices  wiU  create  inaccuracy  in  testing,  and 
should  this  occur  the  funnel  meter  should  be  repaired  and 
re-tested  at  the  factory.  In  case  the  head — carrying  the 
orifices — becomes  dented,  it  is  also  necessary  to  have  the 
funnel  meter  re-tested. 

Large  Capacity  Meter  for  Measuring  Compressed  Air^ — 

This  meter  is  a  displacement  meter  and  gives  meter  readings 
on  clock  or  dial  in  compressed  air  figures.  The  capacity  of 
the  meter  has  reference  to  the  meter  reading. 

If  it  is  desired  to  reduce  meter  reading  or  compressed 
air  figures  to  free  air  figures,  use  the  multiplier  tables  for 
various  pressures  on  page  391. 

If  the  pressure  is  variable,  a  volume  and  pressure  gauge 
is  essential,  the  same  as  in  measurement  of  high  pressure  gas. 
This  records  the  pressure  variations,  together  with  the 
number  of  thousands  of  cubic  feet  of  air  passing  through 
the  meter  at  the  recorded  pressure,  from  which  is  com- 
puted the  corresponding  quantity  of  free  air.  The  gauge 
will  also  show  the  peak  and  minimum  loads  during 
the  twenty-four  hour  period.  Gauges  are  furnished  with 
either  twentv-four  hour  or  seven-dav  clocks. 


Fig.   150— TESTING  A  LARGE  CAPACITY  METER  IX  THE  FIELD 

380 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 


Do  not  set  a  meter  near  a  compressor  unless  plenty  of 
pipe  area  is  furnished  or  tanks  are  installed  between  the 
meter  and  the  compressor  to  eliminate  the  vibration  or  throb 
of  the  piston.  Large  capacity  meters  will  stand  a  reasonable 
amount  but  not  an  excess  of  vibration. 

Table  to  Determine  the  Proper  Sized  Meter,  to  be  Used  in 
Measuring  Air,  from  Atmospheric  Pressure  up  to  120 
Pounds  to  the  Square  Inch,  with  a  Large  Capacity 
Meter,  where  the  Maximum  Volume  per  Minute  of 
Free  Air  is  Given. 


*L"se  tally  meters  encased  to  stand  high  pressure 
t  For  this  volume  use  l^atterv  of  meters. 


Fig.  Xo.  I, 
381 


CAPACITY 

OF   Meters   at   Different    Pressures 

Maximum 
Volume 

In  Cub 

c  Feet  per 

Hour 

P'rEE  Air 

Per  Minute 

Atmos- 

Cubic Feet 

pheric 
Pressure 

30- Lb. 

60- Lb. 

90-Lb. 

120-Lb. 

50 

3,000 

3,000 

* 

* 

* 

100 

6,000 

3,000 

3,000 

* 

* 

200 

10,000 

6,000 

3,000 

3,000 

* 

300 

20,000 

6,000 

6.000 

3,000 

3,000 

400 

35,000 

10,000 

6,000 

6,000 

3,000 

500 

35,000 

10,000 

6,000 

6,000 

6,000 

600 

35,000 

20,000 

10,000 

6,000 

6,000 

800 

50,000 

20.000 

10,000 

10,000 

6,000 

1.000 

75,000 

20,000 

20,000 

10,000 

10,000 

2,000 

125,000 

50,000 

35,000 

20,000 

20,000 

2,500 

t275,000 

50,000 

35,000 

35,000 

20.000 

'  ^DHI^^^^^^KLJbbv 

— ■ ~~>^^^Hi 

■ —   ~ 

^*''  'l•^-                 ■^Si^^^^^                           1 

■■■■■■^^^^^^^^^ 

■i 

V 

pH    s;      ;s     -^^^    S  1 

;^;  5  «^a 

i^aa         ^^^^  - 

^ 

■■^          ^m^m   1 

■n 

1 

hi 

MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 

Recording  Gauge — Where  gas  is  measured  at  a  greater 
pressure  than  four  ounces,  a  recording  gauge  is  necessary 
to  determine  the  pressure  throughout  the  24  hours  so  that  the 
multiplier  for  the  average  pressure  can  be  applied  to  the 
meter  reading  to  obtain  the  actual  amount  of  gas  passed. 

The  recording  gauge  should  be  set  on  the  meter  itself 
and  if  it  is  a  24-hour  gauge,  the  chart  should  be  taken  off 
daily  and  the  day's  reading,  together  with  the  previous  day's 
reading,  written  on  the  back  of  the  chart. 

Before  setting  a  recording  gauge  on  a  large  capacity 
meter,  see  that  the  marking  arm  rests  at  zero. 


Fig.  152— RECORDING  PRESSURE  GAUGE  IN  CARRYING  CASE 


382 


MEASUREMENT  OF  FLOWING  GAS  IN  PIPE  LINES 


It  is  very  essential  to  have  recording  pressure  gauges 
that  are  used  in  connection  with  large  capacity  meters  tested, 
as  an  error  of  ten  pounds  would  amount  to  from  6  to  8  per 
cent,  in  the  actual  gas  passed  through  the  meter  at  125  lb. 
pressure.  At  higher  pressures  the  actual  error  would  in- 
crease accordingly. 

Volume  and  Pressure  Recording  Gauge — (Adapted  for 
use  on  the  Large  Capacity  Meters  in  measuring  gas  or  com- 

pressed  air.)  —  In 
measuring  gas  or  com- 
pressed air,  it  is  al- 
ways desirable  to 
determine  the  pres- 
sure of  each  10,000 
cubic  foot  volume 
passing  through  the 
meter.  This  enables 
the  attendant  to  ob- 
tain the  correct  mul- 
tiplier from  which  he 
calculates  the  actual 
amount  of  gas  or  air 
passing  through  the 
meter.  In  addition  to 
recording  the  contin- 
uous pressure,  this 
gauge  is  equipped 
with  a  volume  marker 
so  constructed  that — 
ijy  making  an  additional  mark  or  dash  on  the  margin  of 
the  circular  chart — it  indicates  each  10,000  foot  volume 
passed. 

There  is  another  advantage  in  the  use  of  the  volume  and 
pressure  recording  gauge,  for  if  the  line  should  break  ahead 
of  the  meter,  the  gauge  chart  would  show,  not  only  the  time 

383 


Fi^.  lo3 — X'olunie   and    Pressure    Reeording    Gang 
for  use  on  Large  Capacity  Meters 


MEASUREMENT    OF    FLOWING    GAS    IN    PIPE    LINES 

of  the  break,  but  also  the  number  of  10,000  cubic  foot  vol- 
umes that  had  passed  through  the  meter  after  the  accident. 
These    gauges    are    equipped  with   either  1000,  10,000 
or  100,000  cubic  foot  volume  marking  arms. 


Fig.    154 — -1    Recording   Volume  and  Pressure  Gauge  Chart.     Each  dash,    in   space 

adjoining  pressure  graduations,  indicates  a   10,000  cu.  foot 

volume  has  passed  the  meter. 


384 


PART    XIXK 

Density    (J  f    Gases 

Robert  Boyle — Robert  Boyle  was  an  English  natural 
philosopher,  the  seventh  son  and  the  fourteenth  child  of 
Richard  Boyle,  the  great  Karl  of  Cork.  He  was  bom  at 
Lismore  Castle,  province  of  Munster,  Ireland,  January  25, 
1627. 

After  three  years  at  Eton  he  went  abroad  to  travel  with 
a  French  tutor.  Returning  to  England  in  1642  he  found  his 
father  had  died  and  left  him  estates  at  Dorsetshire  and  in 
Ireland.    From  that  time  on  he  gave  his  life  to  study. 

Reading,  in  1657,  of  Otto  von  Guericke's  air  pump,  he 
set  himself,  with  the  assistance  of  Robert  Hooke,  to  devise 
improvements  in  its  construction.  The  pneumatic  engine 
being  finished  in  1659,  he  began  a  series  of  experiments  on 
the  properties  of  air.  An  account  of  the  work  he  did  with 
this  instrument  was  published  in  1660  under  the  title  "New 
Experiments  Physico-Mechanical  Touching  the  vSpring  of 
Air  and  Its  Effects." 

Among  the  critics  of  the  view^s  put  forward  in  the  book 
was  a  Jesuit,  Franciscus  Linue;  and  it  was  while  answering 
his  objections  that  Boyle  enunciated  the  law  that  the 
"volume  of  gas  varies  inversely  as  the  pressure."  This  law 
among  English-speaking  people,  is  called  after  his  name; 
though  on  the  continent  it  is  attributed  to  E.  Mariotte,  who 
did  not  publish  it  till  1676. 

Robert  Boyle  died  December  30,  1691,  at  the  house  of 
his  sister  in  Pall  Mall,  London. 

Edmond  Mariotte — The  French  physicist,  Edmond 
Mariotte,  was  born  in  1620  at  Dijon,  where  he  spent  most 
of  his  life.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy 
of  Science,  founded  in  Paris  in  1666.  He  died  in  Paris,  May 
12,  1684. 

385 


DENSITY        OF         GASES 

He  wrote  many  essays  between  1676  and  1679  bearing  on 
physical  subjects,  such  as  motion  of  fluids,  freezing  water, 
and  the  barometer. 

In  his  second  essay,  written  about  1676,  is  the  statement 
of  the  law  that  the  "volume  varies  inversely  as  the  pressure," 
which,  though  very  generally  called  by  his  name,  had  been 
discovered  by  Robert  Boyle  in  1660. 

Jacques  Alexander  Cesar  Charles — Jacques  Alexander 
Cesar  Charles  was  a  French  mathematician  and  physicist, 
born  in  Beaugency,  Loiret,  November  12,  1746.  He  was  the 
first  to  employ  hydrogen  for  the  inflation  of  balloons,  and 
in  about  1787  he  anticipated  Gay  Lussac's  law  of  dilation 
of  gases  with  heat,  which,  on  that  account,  is  sometimes 
known  by  his  name. 

He  died  in  Paris,  April  7,  1823. 

Boyle's  and  Mariotte's  Law — In  a  perfect  gas  the  volume 
is  inversely  proportional  to  the  pressure  to  which  the  gas  is 
subjected,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  product  of  the 
pressure  and  the  volume  of  a  given  quantity  of  gas  remains 
constant 

Charles'  Law — The  volume  of  a  given  mass  of  any  gas 
under  constant  pressure,  increases  from  the  freezing  point  by 
constant  fraction  of  its  volume  at  zero.     In  other  words, 

gases  expand  — -  of  their  volume  at  0  deg.  C.  for  each  deg.  of 

1 

C.  rise  of  temperature,  and  jrz  of  their  volume  at  32  deg. 

fahr.  for  each  deg.  fahr.  rise  of  temperature. 

Expansion  or  Contraction  of  Natural  Gas  Due  to  Change 

1 
in  Temperature — A\\  perfect  gases  expand  or  contract  jri 


386 


DENSITY        OF        GASES 

or  0.00203  of  their  voluiiic  at  32  deg.  fahr.  for  an  increase  or 
decrease,  respectively,  of  eacii  deg.  fahr.  of  temperature. 
Consequently  if  the  temperature  should  fall  492  deg.  below 
freezing  temperature,  or  460  deg.  below  zero,  fahr.,  the 
volume  of  gas  would  contract  to  nothing.  This  point, 
namely,  460  deg.  fahr.,  is  called  the  absolute  zero  of  tem- 
perature, and  the  absolute  temperature  of  any  gas  is  its 
temperature  above  freezing  plus  460  deg.  Thus  60  deg. 
standard  temperature  corresponds  to  60  +  460  =  520  deg. 
absolute  temperature. 

Low  Pressure  Basis — The  "Rock  Pressure"  of  gas  wells 
varies  according  to  the  depth  of  the  well  and  the  length  of 
time  the  well  has  been  drilled;  likewise  the  pressure  of  the 
flowing  gas  in  pipe  lines,  meters,  regulators,  and  gates  is 
extremely  variable,  and  on  account  of  this  variation  in  pres- 
sure, it  was  found  necessary  to  establish  some  basis  on  which 
to  sell  and  buy  natural  gas. 

Some  years  ago  Mr.  F.  H.  Oliphant,  at  that  time  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  considered  as  a  basis 
of  natural  gas  measurement  a  pressure  of  14.65  pounds  per 
square  inch  absolute,  and  a  temperature  of  60  degrees  fahr., 
and  since  then  it  has  become  customary  for  natural  gas  men 
to  refer  their  gas  measurements  to  this  basis.  A  pressure  of 
14.65  pounds  per  square  inch  is  4  ounces  above  the  assumed 
atmospheric  pressure  of  14.4  pounds  per  square  inch,  the 
latter  being  the  average  at  about  the  elevation  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  which  elevation  was  considered  fairly  representing 
that  of  most  gas  fields. 

Density  Changes  in  Gas  Volumes — At  4-ounce  pressure 
a  cubic  foot  of  gas  is  made  up  of  a  certain  number  of  atoms. 
In  order  to  increase  the  pressure  in  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  con- 
fined into  a  like  space,  it  is  necessary  to  force  into 
that  space  more  gas  or  more  atoms  of  gas.  If  a  sufficient 
amount  of  gas  is  forced  into  the  confined  space,  originally 

387 


DENSITY 


O    F 


GASES 


holding  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  at  4-ounce  pressure,  to  create  15 
pounds  pressure,  there  will  then  be  twice  as  much  gas,  or 
twice  as  many  atoms  of  gas  confined  in  the  same  space 

To  illustrate,  take  a  cylinder  of  proper  diameter  to 
contain  one  cubic  foot  of  space  for  each  foot  in  length  fitted 
with  a  tight  plunger. 


Y////////My//////////////v//^^^^^^ 


I  CU.  FT. 


'v////////////////yy//////////^///////////////////^^^^  '/////////////Ml 


V///////////////////////////////////////7Z'Z^Z^ 


Z    CU.  FT 


^OZ.    T^P£r^.S: 


Y>///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////;////////j^ 


Fig.   loo — NOTE — Pressures  slio-wn   in   Cuts  are  Gauge  Pressures 

If  the  plunger  in  the  cylinder  is  placed  at  the  one-foot 
mark  and  enough  gas  forced  into  the  space  to  create  a  pres- 
sure of  fifteen  pounds,  it  could  be  said  that  the  cylinder 
contained  one  cubic  foot  of  15-pound  gas.  Then  if  the 
plunger  is  withdrawn  until  it  rests  at  the  two-foot  mark  the 
gas  will  expand  and  the  pressure  will  drop  to  four  ounces 
and  the  actual  volume  contained  in  the  space  will  be  two 
cubic  feet.  In  other  words,  by  multiplying  the  cubic  con- 
tents in  the  first  cylinder  by  2  it  will  give  the  actual  amount 
of  4-ounce  gas  in  cubic  feet. 

As  all  gas  meters  in  the  factory  are  tested  and  corrected 
to  a  low  pressure  basis,  measuring  gas  by  displacement,  they 
may  be  compared  to  the  cylinder  with  the  plunger  as  illus- 
trated above.  In  measuring  gas  in  the  meter,  the  diaphragms 
contain  just  so  much  space.  If  the  pressure  of  the  gas  con- 
fined in  each  quantity  or  volume  of  gas  measured  by  the 
diaphragms  filling  and  discharging  is  four  ounces,  then  the 
meter  reading  needs  no  correction;  but  each  time  the  meter 
diaphragm  fills  and  discharges  a  volume  of  gas  at  a  higher 

388 


DENSITY        OF         GASES 

pressure  than  four  ounces,  the  meter  reading  must  be  cor- 
rected by  applying  a  multipHer,  to  reduce  the  volume  of 
gas  measured  to  a  four-ounce  basis;  and  the  higher  the 
pressure  the  greater  will  be  the  density  of  the  gas  and  the 
greater  the  number  of  atoms  contained  in  each  cubic  foot 
of  space. 

The  multipliers  for  density  are  based  on  Boyle's  law 
written  in  1(360,  that  the  "volume  of  a  gas  varies  inverselv 
as  the  pressure." 

While  the  four  ounce  basis  is  generally  accepted  when 
no  other  pressure  basis  is  stated  in  a  buying  and  selling 
agreement,  some  other  basis  can  be  used  and  very  often  is 
used,  particularly  when  gas  is  bought  or  sold  in  large  volumes 
in  the  field. 

Formula  for  Determining  the  Quantity  of  Natural  Gas 
When  Measured  Above  Normal  Pressure — In  which 

Q  =  g 


h-\-.25 

Q  =  cubic  feet  required. 
g  =  cubic  feet  shown  by  the  meter. 
p  =  gauge  pressure  in  pounds. 
h  =  atmospheric  pressure  of  14.4  pounds. 
0.2o=4-ounce  pressure  reduced  to  pounds. 

By  substituting  the  known  values  in  the  above  it  be- 
comes 

p  +  UA 
^     ^14.65 
For  Example: — Suppose  the  meter    or   g  reads   1,000 
cubic  feet  and  the  pressure  p  shows  32J2  pounds  to  the 
square  inch ,  required  to  find  the  quantity  of  gas  at  a  pressure 
of  four  ounces.     Then 

32.5+14.4 
Q=1,000     ,,,,      =3.2013x1000=3,201.3 
14.65 

389 


DENSITY 


O    F 


GASES 


The  result  is  therefore  3201.3  cubic  feet  at  the  standard 
pressure  of  four  ounces  to  the  square  inch. 

In  the  fohowing  pages  will  be  found  a  set  of  multiplying 
tables  for  gas  measured  at  4  ounce  pressure  base.  In  com- 
piling the  multipliers,  atmospheric  pressure  (which  does  not 
show  on  the  gauge)  at  14.4  pounds  is  taken,  same  being  the 
average  atmospheric  pressure  in  the  natural  gas  fields,  and 
temperature  of  60  deg.  fahr.  Usually  no  correction  is  made 
for  change  in  temperature  as  60  degrees  fahr.  represents  an 
average  temperature  throughout  the  year. 


w 


^m- 


Fig.  loG 


390 


DENSITY 


O    F 


GASES 


Multipliers  for  Reducing  Gas  Volumes  or  Meter  Readings  to 
a  Pressure  Base  of  4  Ounces  Above  Atmospheric  Pressure. 


Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

1     Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

or 
Density 

.14535 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

7 

or 
Density 

1.46075 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

or 
Density 

-25 

28 

2.89419 

-24 

.17885 

7,^2 

1.49488 

281  2 

2.92832 

-23 

.21236 

1            8 

1.52901 

29 

2.96245 

-22 

.24586 

8^2 

1.56313 

291^ 

2.99658 

-21 

.27936 

9 

1.59726 

-20 

.31287 

912 

1.63139 

30 

3.03071 

-19 

.34637 

3OI9 

3.06484 

-18 

.37987 

10 

1.66552 

31 

3.09879 

-17 

.41338    i 

101., 

1.69965 

313^ 

3.13310 

-16 

.44688    , 

11  " 

1.73378 

32 

3.16723 

11^2 

1.76791 

321^^ 

3.20136 

-15 

.48038 

12 

1.80204 

33 

3.23549 

-14 

.51389 

12^2 

1.83617 

331 9 

3.26962 

-13 

.54739 

13 

1.87030 

34 

3.30375 

-12 

.58090 

131  2 

1.90443 

341^ 

3.33788  ■ 

-11 

.61440 

14 

1.93856 

-10 

.64790 

1432 

1.97269 

35 

3.37201 

-  9 

.68141 

351^ 

3.40614 

-  8 

.71491 

15 

2.00682 

36 

3.44027 

-  7 

.74841 

151^, 

2.04095    1 

361  9 

3.47440 

-  6 

.78191 

16 

2.07508 

37 

3.50853 

I6V2 

2.10921 

371^ 

3.54266 

-  5 

.81542 

17 

2.14334 

38 

3.57679 

-  4 

.84892 

171. 

2.17747 

381  2 

3.61092 

-  3 

.88242    i 

18 

2.21160 

39 

3.64505 

-  2 

.91593 

,           181 ., 

2.24573 

391  9 

3.67918 

-  1 

.94943 

19 

2.27986 

I               ■  " 

Atmos. 

.98293 

191  2 

2.31399 

i          40 

3.71331 

Lb. 

per  Sq.  In. 

20 

2.34812 

401  „ 
41 

3.74744 
3.78156 

2OI9 

2.38225 

41  li 

3.81569 

OH 

1.00000 

21 

2.41638 

42 

3.84982 

oy2 

1.01706 

213^ 

2.45051 

421 2 

3.88395 

1 

1.05119 

22 

2.48464 

43 

3.91808 

I'A 

1.08532 

221 9 

2.51877 

431.? 

3.95221 

2 

1.11945 

23 

2.55290 

44 

3.98634 

2M 

1.15358 

231., 

2.58703 

441  2 

4.02047 

3 

1.18771 

24 

2.62116 

33^ 

1.22184 

241  2 

2.65528 

45 

4.05460 

4 

1.25597 

451 2 

4.08873 

4^ 

1.29010 

25 

2.68941 

46 

4.12286 

251  9 

2.72354 

461 2 

4.15699 

5 

1.32423 

26 

2.75767 

47 

4.19112 

53^ 

1.35836 

261  2 

2.79180 

471 9 

4.22525 

6 

1.39249 

27 

2.82593 

48 

4.25938 

6^2 

1.42662 

271  9 

2.86006 

481  9 

4.29351 

'Vacuum"  or   minus   pressure. 

391 


DENSITY 


O    F 


GASES 


4-Ounce  Multipliers — {Continued) 


Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

or 
Density 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

or 
Density 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

91 

or 
Density 

49 

4.32764 

70 

5.76109 

7.19453 

494 

4.36177 

704 

5.79522 

!          914 

7.22866 

71 

5.82935 

92 

7.26279 

50 

4.39590 

711. 

5.86348 

921 9 

7.29692 

501/2 

4.43003 

72 

5.89761 

93 

7.33105 

51 

4.46416 

723'^ 

5.93174 

93I2 

7.36518 

513^^ 

4.49829 

73 

5.96587 

94 

7.39931 

52 

4.53242 

731-^ 

6.00000 

944 

7.43344 

521/2 

4.56655 

74 

6.03412 

53 

4.60068 

74I2 

6.06825 

95 

7.46757 

53V2 

4.63481 

954 

7.50170 

54 

4.66894 

75 

6.10238 

96 

7.53583 

541^ 

4.70307 

754 

6.13651 

96V^ 

7.56996 

76 

6.17064 

97 

7.60409 

55 

4.73720 

764 

6.20477 

973^ 

7.63822 

bbVr, 

4.77133 

77 

6.23890 

98 

7.67235 

56 

4.80546 

774 

6.27303 

984 

7.70648 

561^ 

4.83959 

78 

6.30716 

99 

7.74061 

57 

4.87372 

784 

6.34129 

991^ 

7.77474 

571^ 

4.90784 

79 

6.37542 

58 

4.94197 

793^ 

6.40955 

100 

7.80887 

583^ 

4.97610 

101 

7.87713 

59 

5.01023 

80 

6.44368 

102 

7.94539 

59>^ 

5.04436 

803^ 

6.47781 

103 

8.01365 

81 

6.51194 

104 

8.08191 

60 

5.07849 

813/i 

6.54607 

105 

8.15107 

601.2 

5.11262 

82 

6.58020 

106 

8.21843 

61 

5.14675 

821-2 

6.61433 

107 

8.28668 

614 

5.18088 

83 

6.64846 

108 

8.35494 

62 

5.21501 

834 

6.68259 

109 

8.42320 

621^ 

5.24914 

84 

6.71672 

63 

5.28327 

8432 

6.75085 

110 

8.49146 

63I2 

5.31740 

111 

8.55972 

64 

5.35153 

85 

6.78498    1 

112 

8.62798 

644 

5.38566 

851  9 

6.81911 

113 

8.69624 

86 

6.85324 

114 

8.76450 

65 

5.41979 

863^ 

6.88737 

115 

8.83276 

653^ 

5.45392 

87 

6.92150 

116 

8.90102 

66 

5.48805 

874 

6.95563 

117 

8.96928 

664 

5.52218 

88 

6.98976 

118 

9.03754 

67 

5.55631 

884 

7.02389 

119 

9.10580 

671^ 

5.59044 

89 

7.05802 

68 

5.62457 

894 

7.09215 

120 

9.17406 

68I9 

5.65870 

121 

9.24232 

69 

5.69283 

90 

7.12627 

122 

9.31058 

691^ 

5.72696 

901  2 

7.16040 

123 

9.37883 

392 


DENSITY 


O    F 


GASES 


4-Ounce  Multipliers — (Continued) 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

or 
Density 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

166 

or 
Density 

12.31392 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

or 
Density 

124 

9.44709 

208 

15.18088 

125 

9.51535 

167 

12.38225 

209 

15.24914 

126 

9.58361 

168 

12.45051 

127 

9.65187 

169 

12.51877 

210 

15.31740 

128 

9.72013 

211 

15.38566 

129 

9.78839 

170 

12.58703 

212 

15.45392 

171 

12.65529 

213 

15.52218 

130 

9.85665 

172 

12.72354 

214 

15.59044 

131 

9.92491 

173 

12.79180 

215 

15.65870 

132 

9.99317 

1         174 

12.86006 

216 

15.72696 

133 

10.06143 

i         175 

12.92832 

!        217 

15.79522 

134 

10.12969 

i         176 

12.99658 

218 

15.86348 

135 

10.19795 

177 

13.06484 

219 

15.93174 

136 

10.26621 

178 

13.13310 

137 

10.33447 

179 

13.20136 

220 

16.00000 

138 

10.40273 

221 

16.06825 

139 

10.47098 

180 

13.26962 

222 

16.13651 

181 

13.33788 

223 

16.20477 

140 

10.53924 

182 

13.40614 

1        224 

16.27303 

141 

10.60750 

183 

13.47440 

225 

16.34129 

142 

10.67576 

184 

13.54266 

1        226 

16.40955 

143 

10.74402 

185 

13.61092 

I        227 

16.47781 

144 

10.81228 

186 

13.67918 

228 

16.54607 

145 

10.88054 

187 

13.74744 

229 

16.61433 

146 

10.94880 

188 

13.81569 

147 

11.01706 

189 

13.88395    ! 

230 

16.68259 

148 

11.08532 

231 

16.75085 

149 

11.15358 

190 

13.95221 

232 

16.81911 

191 

14.02047 

233 

16.88737 

150 

11.22184 

192 

14.08873 

234 

16.95563 

151 

11.29010 

193 

14.15699 

235 

17.02389 

152 

11.35836    1 

194 

14.22525 

236 

17.09215 

153 

11.42662 

195 

14.29351 

237 

17.16040 

154 

11.49488 

196 

14.36177 

238 

17.22866 

155 

11.56313    ! 

197 

14.43003 

239 

17.29692 

156 

11.63139 

198 

14.49829 

157 

11.69965 

199 

14.56655 

240 

17.36518 

158 

11.76791 

241 

17.43344 

159 

11.83617 

200 

14.63481 

242 

17.50170 

201 

14.70307 

243 

17.56996 

160 

11.90443 

202 

14.77133 

244 

17.63822 

161 

11.97269 

203 

14.83959 

245 

17.70648 

162 

12.04095 

204 

14.90784    1 

246 

17.77474 

163 

12.10921 

205         1 

14.97610    i 

247 

17.84300 

164 

12.17747 

206 

15.04436 

248 

17.91126 

165 

12.24573 

207         1 

15.11262    ' 

249         ' 

17.97952 

393 


DENSITY 


O    F 


GASES 


4-Ouiice  Multipliers — {Continued) 


Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

or 
Density 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

or 
Density 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

334 

or 
Density 

250 

18.04778 

292 

20.91467 

23.78156 

251 

18.11604 

293 

20.98293  i 

335 

23.84982 

252 

18.18480 

294 

21.05119  I 

336 

23.91808 

253 

18.25255 

295 

21.11945 

337 

23.98634 

254 

18.32081 

296 

21.18771 

338 

24.05460 

J>55 

18.38907 

297 

21.25597 

339 

24.12286 

256 

18.45733 

298 

21.32423 

257 

18.52559 

299 

21.39249 

340 

24.19112 

258 

18.59385 

341 

24.25938 

259 

18.66211 

300 

21.46075 

342 

24.32764 

301 

21.52901 

343 

24.39590 

260 

18.73037 

302 

21.59726 

344 

24.46416 

261 

18.79863 

'    303 

21.66552 

345 

24.53242 

262 

18.86689 

304 

21.73378 

346 

24.60068 

263 

18.93515 

305 

21.80204 

347 

24.66894 

264 

19.00341 

306 

21.87030 

348 

24.73720 

265 

19.07167 

307 

21.93856 

\        349 

24.80546 

266 

19.13993 

308 

22.00682 

267 

19.20819 

1    309 

22.07508 

350 

24.87371 

268 

19.27645 

351 

24.94197 

269 

19.34470 

310 

22.14334 

352 

25.01023 

311 

22.21160 

353 

25.07849 

270 

19.41296 

312 

22.27986 

354 

25.14675 

271 

19.48122 

1   313 

22.34812 

355 

25.21501 

272 

19.54948 

314 

22.41638 

356 

25.28327 

273 

19.61774 

315 

22.48464 

357 

25.35153 

274 

19.68600 

316 

22.55290 

j    358 

25.41979 

275 

19.75426 

317 

22.62116 

1    359 

25.48805 

276 

19.82252 

318 

22.68941 

277 

19.89078 

319 

22.75767 

360 

25.55631 

278 

19.95904 

361 

25.62457 

279 

20.02730 

320 

22.82593 

362 

25.69283 

321 

22.89419 

363 

25.76109 

280 

20.09556 

322 

22.96245 

364 

25.82935 

281 

20.16382 

323 

23.03071 

365 

25.89761 

282 

20.23208 

324 

23.09897 

366 

25.96587 

283 

20.30034 

325 

23.16723 

367 

26.03412 

284 

20.36860 

326 

23.23549 

368 

26.10238 

285 

20.43685 

I    327 

23.30375 

369 

26.17064 

286 

20.50511 

328 

23.37201 

287 

20.57337 

329 

23.44027 

370 

26.23890 

288 

20.64163 

371 

26.30716 

289 

20.70989 

330 

23.50853 

372 

26.37542 

331 

23.57679 

373 

26.44368 

290 

20.77815 

332 

23.64505 

374 

26.51194 

291 

20.84641 

333 

23.71331 

375 

26.58020 

394 


DENSITY 


O    F 


GASES 


4-Ounce  Multipliers —  {Continued) 


Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Gauge 
Pressure 

Multiplier 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

or 
Density 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

418 

or 
Density 

Lb. 
per  Sq.  In. 

or 
Density 

376 

26.64846 

29.51535 

460 

32.38225 

377 

26.71672 

419 

29.58361 

461 

32.45051 

378 

26.78498 

462 

32.51877 

379 

26.85324 

420 

29.65187 

463 

32.58703 

421 

29.72013 

464 

32.65528 

380 

26.92150 

422 

29.78839 

465 

32.72354 

381 

26.98976 

423 

29.85665 

466 

32.79180 

382 

27.05802 

424 

29.92491 

467 

32.86006 

383 

27.12627 

425 

29.99317 

468 

32.92832 

384 

27.19453 

426 

30.06143 

469 

32.99658 

385 

27.26279 

427 

30.12969 

386 

27.33105 

428 

30.19795 

470 

33.06484 

387 

27.39931 

429 

30.26621 

471 

33.13310 

388 

27.46757 

472 

33.20136 

389 

27.53583 

430 

30.33447 

473 

33.26962 

431 

30.40273 

474 

33.33788 

390 

27.60409 

432 

30.47098 

475 

33.40614 

391 

27.67235 

433 

30.53924 

476 

33.47440 

392 

27.74061 

434 

30.60750 

477 

33.54266 

393 

27.80887 

435 

30.67576 

478 

33.61092 

394 

27.87713 

436 

30.74402 

479 

33.67918 

395 

27.94539 

437 

30.81228 

396 

28.01365 

438 

30.88054 

480 

33.74743 

397 

28.08191 

439 

30.94880 

481 

33.81569 

398 
399 

400 
401 
402 
403 

28.15017 
28.21842 

28.28668 
28.35494 
28.42320 
28.49146 

440 
441 
442 
443 
444 
445 

31.01706 
31.08532 
31.15358 
31.22184 
31.29010 
31.35836 

482 
483 
484 
485 
486 
487 
488 
489 

33.88395 
33.95221 
34.02047 
34.08873 
34.15699 
34.22525 
34.29351 
34.36177 

404 

28.55972 

446 

31.42662 

405 

28.62798 

447 

31.49488 

406 
407 
408 
409 

28.69624 
28.76450 
28.83276 
28.90102 

448 
449 

450 

451 

31.56313 
31.63139 

31.69965 
31.76791 

490 
491 
492 
493 

34.43003 
34.49829 
34.56655 
34.63481 

410 

28.96928 

452 

31.83617 

494 

34.70307 

411 

29.03754 

453 

31.90443 

495 

34.77133 

412 

29.10580 

454 

31.97269 

496 

34.83959 

413 

29.17406 

455 

32.04095 

497 

34.90784 

414 

29.24232 

456 

32.10921 

1        498 

34.97610 

415 

29.31057 

457 

32.17747 

1        499 

35.04436 

416 

29.37883 

458 

32.24573 

417 

29.44709 

459 

32.31399 

500 

35.11262 

For  tables  of  multipliers  of  other  bases  sec  "Measurement  of 
Gases  Where  Density  Changes,"  by  the  author. 

395 


PART   TEX 

Regulation  of  Gas 

REGULATORS:  HIGH,  INTERMEDIATE  AND  LOW- 
REGULATOR  DIAPHRAGM— REGULATORS  AND 
PLAIN  END  PIPE— INSTALLING— REGULATOR 
HOUSE— CARE  OF  REGULATORS— HEATING- 
REGULATOR  BY- PASS— GRINDING  VALVES. 

Regulators — A  gas  regulator  is  practically  a  reducing 
valve  or  set  of  balanced  valves  automatically  controlling  and 
reducing,  by  throttling,  the  pressure  of  the  gas  entering  an 
intermediate  or  low  pressure  main  or  line.  The  regulator  is 
one  of  the  most  vital  parts  in  a  gas  line  system,  and  unless 
working  perfectly  will  cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  loss. 
Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to  the  care  of  the  regu- 
lator. 

As  usually  constructed,  regulators,  when  working  within 
their  range,  will  maintain  a  nearly  constant  pressure  in  the 
outlet  main.  If  an  attempt  is  made  to  reduce  the  pressure 
of  the  gas  through  more  than  one  hundred  pounds,  trouble 
is  liable  to  occur,  through  freezing. 

The  outlet  pressure  of  a  regulator  is  controlled  by  weights 
on  the  lever  arm  connected  with  the  diaphragm  and  valve 
stem. 


Fig.  157— HIGH   FRESSURE  OR  REDUCING  REGULATOR 

396 


REGULATION 


O    F 


GAS 


High  Pressure  Regulators  A  high  pressure  regulator  is 
constructed  with  a  small  diaphragm  and  a  small  set  of  valves 
to  enable  it  to  take  care  of  500  to  600  pounds  safely,  and  when 
especially  ordered  will  take  care  of  pressures  of  800  to  1000 
pounds.  The  work  of  a  high  pressure  regulator  is  to  reduce 
the  pressure  from  a  high  to  an  intermediate  pressure. 

Intermediate  Pressure  Regulators — The  work  of  an 
intermediate  regulator  is  to  reduce  the  pressure  from  50  to 
100  pounds  down  to  15  or  20  pounds,  so  that  the  low  pressure 
regulator  will  control  the  gas  in  a  more  sensitive  manner 
without  too  great  a  reduction.  The  intermediate  pressure 
regulator  is  not  very  commonly  used,  but  when  used,  it 
greatly  improves  the  work  of  both  the  high  and  the  low 
pressure  regulators.  It  gives  a  more  sensitiv^e  and  far  safer 
serv 


Fig.  138-~L0W  PRESSURE   REGL'LAIOR 

397 


REGULATION        OF        GAS 

Low  Pressure  Regulators — A  low  pressure  regulator 
takes  the  gas  from  an  intermediate  pressure  line  and  reduces 
it  to  a  pressure  low  enough  for  home  consumption,  which  is 
from  four  to  six  ounces. 

A  low  pressure  regulator  is  built  with  a  large  diaphragm 
and  large  valves  and  is  very  sensitive. 

INDEX  TO  PARTS  OF  LOW  PRESSURE  REGULATOR 
SHOWN  IN  CUT 

No. 


of  Part 

Name  of  Part 

1 

Bottom  Plug  or  Cap 

2 

Main  Valve  Body 

5 

Valves  and  Connecting  Stem  Complete 

5A 

Bottom  Valve  Nut 

5B 

Bottom  Valve 

5C 

Bottom  Wing 

5D 

Top  Valve 

5E 

Top  Wing 

5F 

Top  Valve  Seats 

5G 

Connecting  Stem 

6 

Lower  ,Steel  Stem 

8 

Top  Cap 

9 

Stuffing  Box 

10 

Upright 

11 

Upper  Brass  Stem 

14A 

Lower  Diaphragm  Cover 

14B 

Upper         "                  " 

14C 

Rubber  Diaphragm 

14D 

Lower  Diaphragm  Plate 

14E 

Upper             "               " 

14F 

Diaphragm  Bolts 

15 

Close  Nipple 

18 

Diaphragm  Piping  or  Breathing  Pipe 

20 

Brass  L^nion 

21 

Special  Diaphragm  Cock 

23 

Main  Line  Nipple 

26 

Flanges  Complete 

27 

Asbestos  Gasket 

28 

Cut-off  Link 

29 

Lever 

30 

Weight 

398 


REGULATION 


O    F 


GAS 


Fig.  159— LOW  PRESSURE   REGULATOR 
SETTING 


Installing — Small  size  high  and  low  pressure  regulators 
set  on  the  same  line  should  be  about  six  feet  apart.  With 
six-inch  and  larger  size,  set  twenty  feet  or  more  apart,  other- 
wise they  are  apt  to  work  against  one  another.  It  is  good 
policy  to  use  a  regulator  of  larger  diameter  than  the  diameter 
of  the  high  pressure  line.  Proper  gauges  should  be  placed  on 
the  high,  intermediate  and  low  pressure  side.  If  a  by-pass 
is  installed  around  a  high  pressure  regulator,  a  gauge  on  the 
low  or  intermediate  side  should  be  placed  in  plain  view  from 
the  by-pass  gate. 

It  is  a  very  good  idea  in  low  pressure  systems  to  place  a 
low  pressure  recording  gauge  on  line,  and  preser^^e  the  charts 
for  reference  in  case  of  dispute.  Do  not  set  regulators  in  a 
pit. 

Regulator  Diaphragms — Regulator  diaphragms  should 
be  examined  often,  and  if  they  show  the  slightest  wear  new 
diaphragms  should  be  substituted  for  the  old.  The  slightest 
pin  hole  in  the  diaphragm  kills  the  effect  of  the  regulator. 

399 


REGULATION         OF        GAS 

Regulator  House — Fig.  1(30  shows  regulator  house  built 
by  the  City  of  Medicine  Hat,  Alta.     Ventilator  is  placed 

at  either  end  of  the  roof. 
Panels  in  the  wall  are  one 
brick  thick.  While  this  build- 
ing is  lire-proof,  the  cost  is 
very  reasonable. 

Regulators  and  Plain 
End  Pipe — When  a  regula- 
tor is  to  be  placed  in  a  plain 
end  pipe  line,  use  two  or 
three   ioints   of   screw   pipe 

Fig.  160— REGULATOR  HOUSE  -'  ,  . 

on  the  inlet  and  outlet  of 
the  regulator.  Where  the  high  pressure  line  enters  the 
regulator  station,  the  pipe  should  be  well  anchored. 

Sheet  Iron  Heater  for  Gas  Line — Figure  161  shows  a 
sheet  iron  heater  for  use  on  a  high  pressure  line  entering 
a  meter  or  regulator  station.  The  large  pipe  projecting 
through  the  roof  carries  off  the  burnt  gases  and  the  small 
pipe  runs  into  the  pit  to  a  point  near  the  mixer  of  the  burner  in 
order  to  slowly  supply  fresh  air.  By  this  method  the  liability 
of  the  mixer  receiving  gusts  of  wdnd  is  eliminated  and  a 
constant  fire  is  assured.  A  common  log  burner  is  used  under 
the  pipe. 

Care  of  Regulators — ^Thaw  a  regulator  with  w^arm  w^ater. 
Do  not  use  oil  on  a  regulator  piston  rod  in  winter  unless 
the  excess  of  oil  is  wiped  off,  as  cold  weather  chills  the 
oil  and  causes  the  piston  to  stick. 

If  frost  accumulates  on  the  high  pressure  regulator,  in- 
crease fire  in  the  heater.  If  the  regulator  is  frozen  solid,  care 
should  be  used  in  thawing  it  out  even  with  warm  water,  as 
the  regulator  is  apt  to  jump  and  throw  high  pressure  gas  into 
either  intermediate  or  low  pressure  lines.  In  the  above 
case  it  is  better  to  close  the  gate  back  of  the  regulator  first,  and 
in  event  of    the  frozen  regulator    being    the    only  feeding 

400 


REGULATION 


O    F 


GAS 


point  on  a   low  pressure    system,    all    consumers    should  be 
notified    that   gas  will  be  turned  on  at  a  certain  hour. 

In  case  regulators  are  set  where  the  distance  between  is 
so  short  that  they  jump,  a  short  piece  of  pipe,  the  same  size 
as  that  used  between  the  two  regulators,  can  be  installed 
at  riglit  angles  to  old  line  and  wall  act  as  a  reservoir.  This,  of 
course,  would  be  a  blind  end  or  short  joint  of  pipe 
capped. 

High  and  low  pressure  regulators  should  be  visited  daily 
and  a  record  kept  of  all  pressures  unless  recording  gauges  are 
used,  in  which  case  the  charts  can  be  preserved. 


Fig.  161— SHEET  IRON  HEATER  FOR 
GAS  LINE 


Heating — I  n  cold 
weather,  or  where  the 
reduction  in  pressure  is 
greater  than  one  hun- 
dred pounds,  use  a  gas 
torch  heater  back  of  the 
small  regulator  instal- 
lation. Place  it  far 
enough  back  so  that  in 
event  of  a  gate  flange 
gasket  blowing  out,  the 
escaping  gas  cannot 
catch  lire  from  the  torch. 


Regulator  By-Pass— All  high  and  low  pressure  regulators 
should  be  installed  with  a  by-pass.  This  will  enable  one  to 
properly  clean,  inspect,  or  repair  them  without  interfering 
with  the  service  ahead  of  the  regulator. 

Grinding  Valves — When  the  seats  or  valves  become 
nicked  or  worn  and  cause  leakage  they  can  be  ground  in 
by  hand.  Valves  should  be  ground  on  their  own  seat,  using 
cmerv  flour  and  oil. 


401 


REGULATION         OF        GAS 

If  a  regulator  fails  to  work  and  the  diaphragm  is  found 
to  be  perfect,  examine  the  valves  and  the  pet  cock  on  the 
breathing  pipe  running  from  the  top  of  the  diaphragm  head 
to  the  low  pressure  side  of  the  regulator.  Dirt  wiU  cause  the 
valves  to  stick  and  the  pet  cock  to  become  choked 


Fig.  162— LOW  PRESSURE  REGULATOR  INSTALLATIOX 
Note  Single  and  Double  Diaphragm  Regulators 

402 


PART  i:levex 

Distribution    of    Gas 

LOW  PRESSURE  SYSTEM  —  MAPPING  —  REGU- 
LATOR STATION  —  OIL  SAFETY  TANKS  — 
SAFETY  VALVES  —  GAUGES  —  LEAKS  —  SER- 
VICES —  PURIFIERS  —  RULES  AND  REGULA- 
TIONS FOR   HOUSE   PIPING. 

Description  of  Low  Pressure  System — A  low  pressure 
system  consists  of  a  series  or  network  of  gas  lines  in  which 
the  gas  is  carried  at  a  pressure  of  a  few  ounces  above  at- 
mosphere. This  low  pressure  is  maintained  in  order  to 
lessen  the  possibihty  of  danger  in  house  piping  and  burning 
devices,  and  at  the  same  time  to  give  adequate  ser^'ice  to 
all  consumers  regardless  of  their  distance  from  the  regulating 
station. 

It  is  good  policy  to  use  a  double  system  of  low  pressure 
mains  in  city  streets  where  there  is  a  pavement  or  the 
possibility  of  one  being  laid  in  the  future.  In  this  case  the 
mains  should,  if  possible  be  laid  between  the  curb  and  the 
sidewalk,  one  main  on  each  side  of  the  street. 

In  estimating  the  possible  number  of  consumers  in  a  city, 
figure  live  people  to  the  meter. 

Whenever  possible,  lines  should  be  laid  in  alleys  with 
services  running  into  the  rear  of  the  building.  There  is  less 
liability  of  damage  suits  due  to  accidents  than  if  the  lines 
are  laid  in  much-traveled  streets. 

403 


DISTRIBUTION 


O     F 


GAS 


eoo  ooo 


500  ooo 


I 

(V-  'iOOOOO 

\ 
§ 

4  300000 


\    EOO ooo 


— 1 

c 

He 

-OA 

7a/- 

/Si 
'Si 

/Ui 

^/Cl 

5 

\ 

A^UCH  OF  rH£  £OU//^M£'A/T  Mi/Sr 
B£  H£LD  £0/^  TH/S  ^BAH-  LOAC-A^O 
l^/ll  SS  0S£0  A/or  MO/9£  THAA/ ^ 

Hou/?s  o^/i  r  £>u^/A/o.  SAy:  so  ^/=- 

THS  3MAl././V£5S  0£-  LV/S  /S  £l^/- 
C>£-A/r  £-/?OM  rH££-0/.LO^V//^0:- 
A/OAi3£/?  OF /iOU/?S  W  A  VFAf? 
/A/  IVH/CH  rH£  F/X£D  C/yAF'a£S 
AF£  ACCFa/NO,  ^^^36S^ffP'SO=/00;i 
FOi/FS  F£AF  LOAC)  £(?U/F- 
MEA/r  /5  USED    ^  ^ £0  --  SO  =  /% 

\ 

\ 

\ 

I 

X 

/ 

- 

1 

V 

\, 

1 

/ 

y 

C 

r 

0£ 
PS 

LC 
4X 

LC 

0  / 
■)AL 

5. 

?/" 

^ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

I 

\ 

ooo 

/B  /    2    3  ^    S  ($    7  e  9   /O  //  /2  /    2    3-^36    7  3   9  /O  //  /2 

T/ME 

Fig.  163— CHART   SHOWING    DAILY    PEAK    LOAD  OF  LOW  PRESSURE 
SYSTEM.     (By  S.  S.  Wyer  in  -Natural  Gas  Service.") 


404 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 


3  250.  OOO,  000 
3. 000  000, 000 
2.  750  000  000 

e. 500.000,000 

% 

\2.££aoooooo 

\ 

^2.000000  000 
^  /,  Z50,  OOa  OOO 

':^/,<$oo,ooo.ooo 

\ti/,  500,000,000 

I 

W/,^so,ooaooo 

\  /,  OOO.  OOO,  OOO 

750,000000 

500,000000 

'250,000,000 

ooo,oooooA 

M  I  H  n  H  I  H 

Fig.  164—AVERAGE  MOXTHLY  PEAK   LOAD     {By  S.  S.  Wyer) 


405 


DISTRIBUTION        OF        GAS 

Peak  Load.  l{very  natural  gas  company  is  confronted 
\\4th  the  serious  problem  of  peak  load,  and  how  to  obtain  an 
adequate  return  on  the  additional  investment  required. 
Abnormal  peaks  of  very  short  duration  are  characteristic 
of  all  natural  gas  loads.  This  necessitates  a  large  invest- 
ment for  equipment  that  is  actually  used  only  a  very  short 
period  out  of  each  year.  Even  though  the  peak  load  equip- 
ment is  used  for  a  few  hours  out  of  each  year,  the  invest- 
ment must  be  made  to  render  the  service. 

Construction  of  Low  Pressure  System — Plain  end  pipe 
can  be  used  to  great  advantage  in  a  low  pressure  system. 
There  should  be  no  dead  ends.  In  cities  of  5000  or  larger, 
use  a  belt  line  feeding  system.  This  consists  merely  of  feed- 
ing the  gas  from  the  high  pressure  line  into  a  belt  line  at 
an  intermediate  pressure,  which  in  turn  is  connected  with 
different  regulator  stations  where  the  gas  is  reduced  to  a  low 
pressure  of  generally  about  four  to  six  ounces.  The  pressure 
carried  on  the  belt  line  should  be  between  fifteen  and  twenty 
pounds. 

Mapping — When  a  low  pressure  system  is  installed  or 
any  new  additions  made  to  an  old  system,  it  should  be 
properly  platted,  showing  all  tees,  plugs,  expansion  joints, 
bends  and  other  fittings,  as  well  as  distances  in  feet,  between 
streets  and  from  curb  to  lines. 

Size  of  Mains — Low^  pressure  systems  are  too  frequently 
installed  with  pipe  of  too  small  a  diameter.  The  larger  the 
main  the  better  will  be  the  ser\4ce  and  the  lower  the  pressure 
necessary  to  give  it. 


406 


DISTRIBUTION 


O     F 


GAS 


Table  Showing  the  Approximate  Discharge,  in  Cubic  Feet 
per  Hour,  of  Gas  of  0.6  Specific  Gravity  in  Different 
Lengths  and  Diameters  of  Pipe 

Intake  Pressure 4.0  oz.  or  6.9  in.  water 

Discharge  Pressure 3.7  oz.  or  6.4  in.  water 

(By  F.  H.  Oliphant) 


Diameter  of  Pipe 

Iv'gh 

in 
Feet 

llnch 

2  Inch 

3  Inch 

4  Inch 

5  Inch 

6  Inch 

8  Inch 

10  Inch 

12  Inch 

50 

350 

2,072 

5,775 

11,935 

21,000 

33,250 

69,300 

122.500 

194,600 

100 

247 

1,462 

4,075 

8,422 

14,820 

23,465 

48,906 

86,450 

137,332 

150 

203 

1,201 

3,349 

6,922 

12,180 

19,285  40,194 

71,050  112,868 

200 

175 

1,036 

2,887 

5,967 

10,500 

16,625  =  34,650 

61,250 

97,300 

250 

152 

899 

2,508 

5,183 

9,120 

14,440  30,096 

53.200 

84,512 

300 

143 

846 

2,359 

4,876 

8,580 

13,585 

28,311 

50,050 

79,508 

350 

136 

805 

2,244 

4,637 

8,160 

12,920 

26,928 

47,600 

75,616 

400 

124 

734 

2,046 

4.228 

7,440 

11,780 

24,552 

43,400 

68,944 

450 

115 

680 

1,897 

3.921 

6,900 

10,925!  22,770 

40.250 

63.940 

500 

110 

652 

1,815 

3,751 

6,610 

10,450 

21,780 

38,500 

61,160 

600 

102 

603 

1,683 

3,478 

6,120 

9.690 

20,196 

35.700 

56,712 

700 

95 

562 

1,567 

3,239 

5,700 

9.025 

18,810 

33.250 

52,820 

800 

88 

520 

1.452 

3,000 

5,280 

8,360 

17,424 

30,800 

48,928 

900 

83 

491 

1,369 

2,830 

4,980 

7,885 

16,434 

29.050 

46.148 

1000 

76 

449 

1,254 

2,591 

4,560 

7,220 

15,048 

26,600 

42.256 

1100 

73 

432 

1,204 

2,489 

4,380 

6,935 

14,454 

25,550 

40.588 

1200 

71 

420 

1,171 

2.421 

4,260 

6,745 

14,058 

24,850 

39.476 

1300 

68 

402 

1,122 

2,318 

4,080 

6,460 

13,464 

23.800 

37,808 

1400 

66 

390 

1,089 

2,250 

3,960 

6,270 

13,068 

23,100 

36.696 

1500 

64 

378 

1,056 

2,182 

3,840 

6,080 

12,672 

22,400 

35,584 

1600 

62 

367 

1,023 

2,114 

3,720 

5.890 

12,276 

21,700 

34,472 

1800 

58 

343 

957 

1,977 

3,480 

5,510 

11,484 

20.300 

32.248 

2000 

55 

325 

907 

1,875 

3,300 

5.225 

10,890 

19,250 

30,580 

2500 

50 

296 

825 

1,705 

3,000 

4,750 

9,900 

17,500 

27,800 

3000 

47 

278 

775 

1,602 

2,820 

4,465 

9,306 

16.450 

26,132 

3500 

42 

248 

693 

1,432 

2,520 

3,990 

8.316 

14.700 

23,352 

4000 

40 

236 

660 

1.364 

2.400 

3,800 

7,920 

14,000 

22.240 

4500 

37 

219 

610 

1,261 

2,220 

3,515 

7,326 

12.950 

20.572 

5280 

34 

201 

561 

1,159 

2,040 

3,230 

6,732 

11,900 

18,904 

407 


DISTRIBUTION 


O     F 


GAS 


Welding  Gas  Mains — In  welding  gas  mains,  the  pipe 
is  strung  along  on  top  of  the  ground,  outside  of  the  trench. 
Two  or  more  lengths  of  pipe  are  butted  together  and  welded 
by  an  operator,  assisted  by  two  helpers,  one  at  each  end  of 
the  section.  The  helpers  turn  the  section  with  chain  tongs 
or  other  devices  so  that  the  operator  is  always  welding  on 
top  of  the  pipe — a  position  in  which  the  fastest  work  can 
be  accomplished. 


Fig.    lt;5—WELDIXG   LOW   I'RIi.ss  [' RE    M  M  .\ 


Various  engineers  use  different  methods  of  handling 
the  pipe  for  welding.  While  many  follow  the  method  de- 
scribed above  for  all  sizes  of  pipe,  some  engineers  weld  the 
larger  sizes,  namely,  8,  10,  12  and  16  inches,  supported  on 
skids  directly  above  the  trench.  In  this  way  frequently  two 
operators  work  on  opposite  sides  of  the  pipe,  which  is  turned, 
as  the  work  progresses,  by  one  or  more  helpers. 

408 


DISTRIBUTION 


O     F 


GAS 


With  the  small  oxv-acetylene  ilaine,  which  has  a  tem- 
perature of  approximately  ().3()0  degrees,  the  metal  on  each 
side  of  the  joint  is  heated  to  the  fusion  point,  when  pure 
Norway  iron  wire  is  fused  into  the  molten  metal,  forming  a 
true  fusion  weld.  By  this  simple  method  the  operator  does 
the  work,  building  up  the  weld  to  any  desired  thickness, 
making  the  joint  as  strong  as  desired. 

Where  the  pipes  are  cut  off  straight,  the  two  sections  are 
butted  up  to  within  re  to  M-inch  of  each  other  according  to 
the  size  of  the  pipe,  and  the  weld  is  made  as  described. 

Figure  166  illus- 
trates a  welding  unit 
most  suitable  for  field 
use.  The  unit  consists 
of  two  steel  cylinders, 
one  each  of  compress- 
ed acetylene  and  oxy- 
gen, wielding  blow- 
pipe, necessar}^  regu- 
lators, hose,  etc.  The 
entire  outfit  is  mount- 
ed on  a  two-wheeled 
truck  and  is  easily 
and  quickly  moved 
from  place  to  place  as 
required. 

As  fast  as  a  sec- 
tion of  welded  pipe  is 
finished  it  is  capped 
at  both  ends  and 
tested  for  leaks,  under 
any  desired  pressure. 
After  the  welded 
section  has  been  test- 
ed and  found  satisfac- 
tory, it  is  rolled  to  the  trench  and  lowered  into  place. 

409 


Fig.  166—  PORTABLE  WELDIXG  OL'TFIT 
CONSISTING  OF  TWO  STEEL  CYLINDERS 
—ONE  OF  OXYGEN  AND  ONE  OF  ACETY- 
LINE  WITH  RECTLATORS.  HOSE.  ETC. 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 

Although  the  pipe  in  the  trench  should  be  graded  as 
carefully  as  is  customary  in  ordinary  practice,  do  care  need 
be  taken  to  ha\'e  it  lie  absolutely  straight.  In  fact  the  more 
snake-like  the  pipe  lies  in  the  trench,  the  better,  as  by  this 
method  contraction  and  expansion  are  taken  care  of.  Com- 
mon practice  has  demonstrated  that  because  of  the  great 
strength  and  flexibility  of  the  welded  joint  this  is  the  only 
provision  necessary  to  take  care  of  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion. 

The  section  of  pipe  now  in  the  trench  is  welded  to  the 
main  already  laid.  For  this,  as  for  all  welding  in  the  trench, 
a  bell  hole  is  dug  large  enough  to  allow  the  operator  to 
weld  entirely  around  the  joint.  When  welding  the  bottom 
of  the  pipe  he  is  working  overhead,  a  position  in  which  good 
welding  is  readily  accomplished  after  proper  practice. 

Where  laterals  are  required,  a  hole  of  the  proper  size  is 
cut  in  the  main  with  the  cutting  blowpipe,  and  the  lateral 
is  welded  into  place  at  any  angle  desired. 

One  of  the  great  advantages  in  this  method  of  pipe  line 
construction  is  the  eliminating  of  joints,  collars,  sleeves, 
fittings,  etc.,  thus  greatly  decreasing  the  leakage. 

Low  Pressure  Main  Marker — In  laying  a  new  low  pres- 
sure system  or  renewing  old  mains,  wherever  the  work  is 
done  at  paved  street  intersections,  it  is  good  practice  to  place 
a  "monument"  directly  over  and  connected  by  chain  to  the 
gas  main  cross  or  intersection.  Top  of  "monument"  should 
be  level  with  the  surface  of  the  pavement  and  should  be 
lettered  to  indicate  it  is  the  property  of  the  gas  company. 
It  will  always  assist  in  locating  the  point  of  intersection  of 
mains  without  running  a  survey  or  use  of  blue  prints. 

Regulating  Station  or  Feeding  Points — Regulating  sta- 
tions should  be  placed  at  advantageous  points  in  the  thickly 
settled  sections  of  the  city  or  town.  The  purpose  of  this  is 
to  maintain  as  nearly  as  possible,  a  uniform  pressure  through- 

410 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 


out  the  whole  distrilnition  system  under  conditions  of  "heavy 
pull,"  or  large  consumption  of  gas. 

Low  Pressure  Regulator  Station  or  Building — A  well- 
built  regulator  house  provided  with  a  ventilator  and  neatlv 
painted  is  a  credit  to  any  gas  company. 

Install  a  low  pressure  recording  gauge,  with  either 
twcntv-four  hour  or  seven-dav  clock  and  chart  on  the  low 


Ptrsptctivc    Plan 

Fig.  167— FLAX  OF  REGULATOR   BilLDIXC 

side  of  the  regulator,  and  require  the  charts  to  be  turned 
into  the  main  office  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  gauge.  This 
will  not  only  show  the  continuous  pressure  on  the  mains  but 
will  also  act  as  a  check  on  the  regulator  inspectors  or  care- 
takers. In  summer,  when  the  consumption  is  low,  the  ten- 
dency of  a  caretaker  is  to  neglect  the  inspection  of  regulators. 

411 


DISTRIBUTION 


O     F 


GAS 


.  ^ '^    1  Cia me  Line  ccntieflror 


F/g.   108— SKETCH  SHOU'IXG  INSTALLATION  OF  LOW  PRESSURE 
RECORDING  GAUGE  AT  REGULATOR  STATION 


Oil  Safety  Tank — An  oil  safety  tank  consists  of  a  sheet- 
iron  drum  or  cylinder  of  reasonable  size  with  pipe  flange 
connections  on  the  top.  The  inlet  to  tank  should  be  of  the 
same  size  pipe  as  the  low  pressure  main  and  should  run  down 
through  the  top  of  the  tank  to  within  six  inches  of  the  bottom. 
The  outlet  should  consist  of  a  short  piece 
of  pipe  the  same  size  as  the  inlet,  to  act  as 
an  escape  for  the  gas,  andwhere  the  tank  is 
placed  in  the  interiorofabuildingthe  outlet 
should  be  continued  to  the  outside.  A 
sufficient  quantity  of  oil  is  placed  in  the 
tank,  to  seal  the  end  of  the  inlet  pipe, 
the  depth  depending  upon  the  pressure 
at  w^hich  it  is  desired  to  have  it  blow. 
If  the  pressure  exceeds  this  value  it  will 
overcome  the  head  produced  hv  the  seal  low  pressure  oil 

J   x-L-  -11  ^u  u    4-U      A-       1  SAFETY   TANK 

and  the  gas  wall  escape  through  the  tank 
and  relieve  the  pressure  on  the  main.    As  soon  as  the  pres- 
sure drops  back  to  its  normal  value  the  oil  seal  automatically 
closes  the  pipe  again.     A  salt-w^ater  brine  can  be  used  in- 
stead of  oil. 


m 


412 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 


Turning  Gas  into  New  Low  Pressure  System-  After 
turning  gas  into  a  new  low  pressure  system  and  before  open- 
ing any  service  cocks,  the  air  should  be  let  out  slowly  along 
various  points  of  the  line.  After  the  gas  has  been  first 
turned  into  the  service,  the  air  should  be  let  out  of  the  service 
through  some  stove  or  other  opening  by  an  inspector  or 
competent  employee  of  the  gas  company. 

Te  sting  Low 
Pressure  Systems — 
In  constructing  a  low 
pressure  system  it 
should  be  tested  after 
each  day's  work  with 
at  least  thirty  pounds 
pressure  of  air  or  gas 
but  not  with  a  com- 
bination of  the  two. 
When  using  air  press- 
ure an  air  pump 
(steam  driven)  can  be 
used,  and  where  the 
system  is  large  the  air 
can  be  pumped  in  over 
night  and  the  inspec- 


tion    made     in 
morning:. 


the 


Fig.   170—TESriXG      A      SECTIOX      OF      LOW- 
PRESSURE  SYSTEM  WITH  A  SMALL  AIR 
COMPRESSOR  AND  GAS  ENGINE  FOR 
POWER  INSTALLED  ON  A  WAGON 


It  is  good  policy 
to  make  a  few  ser\'ice 
taps  under  pressure 
while  testing.  This 
will  assist  in  cleaning 
the  line  as  well  as 
closing  small  leaks. 


413 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 

Leaks — While  leaks  can  be  closed  around  collars  by 
caulking,  it  is  better  to  use  collar  leak  clamps.  Collar  leak 
clamps  take  better  hold  and  need  less  tightening  after  put 
in  use  if  the  end  of  the  collar  has  a  flat  face  or  surface. 

Electrolysis — Electrolysis  in  a  low  pressure  gas  system 
is  the  destruction  of  pipe  caused  by  stray  electric  currents 
from  electric  car  lines.  The  damage  is  done  to  the  gas  main 
by  the  stray  current  jumping  from  the  street  car  rail  or 
ground  onto  the  pipe  and  off  again.  It  is  an  established 
fact  that  an  alternating  current  does  not  cause  electrolysis 
to  nearly  as  great  an  extent  as  does  direct  current.  The 
corrosion  always  takes  place  where  the  current  leaves  the 
pipe  and  enters  the  ground,  whereas  no  harm  is  done  at  the 
point  where  the  current  enters  the  pipe. 

Heretofore  various  remedies  have  been  suggested  in  the 
nature  of  bonding.  One  of  these  methods  was  to  connect 
each  joint  of  pipe  with  the  other  by  a  copper  wire  properly 
attached  to  each  joint  to  make  a  good  electrical  connection. 
The  main  was  wired  at  the  point  nearest  the  dynamo  station 
and  the  wiring  connected  with  the  negative  bar  of  the  dy- 
namo. With  this  method  the  gas  company's  low  pressure 
system  became  the  return  feeder  for  the  electric  car  line 
company  and  practically  a  part  of  its  electric  system.  In 
the  event  of  a  gas  company  repairing  its  main  and  tem- 
porarily breaking  the  gas  line,  there  is  great  liability  of  an 
explosion  of  the  gas  leakage  in  the  ditch  ignited  by  a  spark 
caused  by  the  stray  current  at  the  moment  of  removing  or 
replacing  any  joint  of  pipe  in  the  main. 

Electrolytic  Mitigating  System  (Albert  F.  Ganz,  Elec- 
trical Engineer) — "The  insulated  radial  track  return  feeder 
system  aims  to  relieve  the  tracks  of  current  by  insulated 
conductors  and  thus  aims  to  prevent  currents  from  escaping 
into  the  ground.  With  a  properly  laid  out  track  return 
feeder  system,  together  with  properly  bonded  tracks,  it  is 

414 


DISTRIBUTION        OF        GAS 

possible  and  practicable  to  minimize  stray  currents  through 
the  ground  and  therefore  stray  currents  on  underground 
piping  to  any  desired  minimum  value,  and  such  currents 
may  be  made  so  small  as  to  be  negligible.  This  system, 
removes  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  in  that  it  relieves  under- 
ground piping  systems  of  dangerous  stray  currents.  It 
removes  danger  from  sparking  as  well  as  dangers  from 
electrolysis,  and  does  not  require  changes  to  be  made  in 
the  railway  system  when  changes  in  the  underground  pip- 
ing system  are  made.  In  fact  it  leaves  underground  pip- 
ing systems  separate  and  independent  of  railway  systems, 
which  is  certainly  a  safer  and  more  preferable  condition  than 
to  deliberately  make  such  piping  systems  a  part  of  the  rail- 
way return  circuit  and  a  carrier  of  return   railway  current. 

With  the  tracks  of  two  systems  connected  together,  not 
only  at  cross  overs,  but  also  where  necessary  by  cross  bond- 
ing cables,  these  tracks  become  available  for  the  joint  use 
of  the  return  currents  from  both  systems  with  the  result  of 
greatly  reducing  the  potential  gradient  in  these  tracks  with 
corresponding  reduction  in  stray  currents  through  ground. 

It  is  the  unquestionable  duty  of  those  who  distribute 
electric  currents  to  so  control  them  as  to  prevent  such 
currents  from  damaging  others.  Good  engineering  practice 
of  to-dav  makes  it  possible  and  practicable  for  single  trolley 
electric  railways  to  provide  a  return  circuit  which  will  pre- 
vent escape  of  large  and  serious  stray  electric  currents  into 
the  ground.  Where  such  large  and  serious  stray  elec- 
tric currents  are  allowed  to  escape  they  become  a  source 
of  danger  to  the  lives  and  property  of  the  public  and  to  the 
property  of  other  utilities  and  of  the  municipality.  The  escape 
of  such  currents  should,  in  my  opinion,  be  controlled  through 
the  enactment  and  enforcement  of  a  suitable  ordinance  based 
on  the  police  powers  of  the  municipality,  exactly  as  other 
nuisances  which  endanger  the  public  are  now  controlled." 

415 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 

In  connection  with  Mr.  Ganz's  article,  the  writer  here- 
with cites  an  incident  that  happened  in  the  city  of  Buffalo 
which  fully  bears  out  the  statement  that  stray  electric  cur- 
rents on  gas  and  water  mains  are  not  only  destructive  to  the 
main  but  often  cause  explosions  at  distant  points  from  the 
main.  In  one  of  the  fire  engine  buildings  situated  in  the 
center  of  the  city  a  tin  gas  meter  was  hung  from  the  wall 
near  the  ceiling,  in  close  proximity  to  a  water  pipe  connected 
with  the  city  water  ser\ace.  At  the  time  of  the  accident 
several  firemen  then  on  duty  were  seated  within  plain  view 
of  the  meter.  Apparently,  without  any  known  cause,  a 
flash  occurred  about  the  meter,  melting  same  and  instantly 
starting  a  fire,  which  of  course  on  account  of  its  quick  dis- 
covery was  easily  distinguished  without  any  great  damage. 
If  this  had  happened  under  most  any  other  circumstances 
it  very  likely  would  have  caused  a  disastrous  fire. 

While  this  case  created  considerable  wonderment  it  was 
soon  solved  and  the  cause  attributed  to  stray  currents  jump- 
ing from  either  the  water  pipe  to  the  meter  or  vice  versa  and 
melting  the  solder  on  the  meter. 

With  reference  to  the  foregoing,  it  will  be  noted  that  on 
page  452  under  ''Installing  Domestic  Meters"  the  author 
states:  "In  cities  having  street  car  sendee  do  not  set  the 
meter  near  any  water  or  artificial  gas  pipes." 

ELECTROLYSIS  REMEDIAL  MEASURES. 

"The  following  form  of  ordinance  has  been  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
viding regulations  which  will  relieve  dangerous  conditions  due  to  currents  escaping 
from  electrical  distribution  systems,  which  currents  are  a  constant  source  of  damage 
and  create  a  serious  hazard  to  the  public  and  to  the  property  of  public  utilities. 
The  provisions  of  the  ordinance  are  based  upon  the  present  state  of  the  art  as  de- 
termined by  extended  studies  and  practical  experience  in  this  country  and  abroad. 
Considering  the  dangers  to  be  guarded  against  and  the  magnitude  of  property 
interests  to  be  protected,  the  provisions  of  this  ordinance  are,  in  our  opinion,  neces- 
sary and  reasonable,  and  its  enforcement  will  not  impose  an  undue  burden  upon 
those  affected  by  its  terms. 

ALBERT  F.  GANZ,  Consulting  Electrical  Engineer,  Professor  of  Electrical 
Engineering,  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J.  HOWARD  S. 
WARREN,  Engineer,  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Companv,  New  York, 
N.  Y.     SAMUEL  S.  WYER,  Consulting  Engineer,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

New  York,  N.  V.,  April  11,  1913. 

416 


DISTRIBUTION         OF         GAS 


(^RDIXANCK   No 

To  Protect  the  Lives  and  Property  of  Persons  From  Danger 
Due  to  Stray  Electric  Currents  Through  Ground. 

WHEREAvS,  electric  currents  escaping  into  the  ground 
from  electrical  distribution  systems  are  a  constant  source  of 
danger  to  the  lives  and  property  of  the  public  and  a  constant 
source  of  injury  to  underground  water-pipes,  gas-pipes, 
cable-sheaths,  and  other  underground  metallic  structures; 
and. 

WHEREAvS,  it  is  deemed  necessary  for  the  general  safety 
of  the  public  and  the  necessary  conduct  of  the  public  ser\ace 
to  restrict  and  limit  the  escape  of  electric  currents  from 
electrical  distribution  systems: 

BE  IT  ORDAINED  bv  the  Council  of  the 

of .' ,  vState  of  Ohio : 

SECTION  ONE.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person, 
firm  or  corporation  to  construct,  operate  or  maintain  within 

the  limits  of  the  municipality  of 

any  system  of  circuits  used  by  such  person,  firm  or  cor- 
poration, for  carrying  electric  currents,  which  system  at  any 
one  time  conveys  from  any  one  point  to  any  other  point  more 
than  one  (1)  kilowatt  of  electric  power,  unless  such  current- 
carrying  electric  circuits  are  so  constructed,  operated  and 
maintained  as  to  fulfill  the  requirements  hereinafter  set 
forth. 

SECTION  TWO.  All  metallic  conductors  forming 
parts  of  such  current-carrying  electric  circuits  shall  be  in 
sulated  from  the  ground  wherever  it  is  practicable  so  to 
insulate  them;  or  if  in  the  case  of  any  particular  metallic 
conductor  such  insulation  shall  be  impracticable,  then  and 
in  such  case  the  said  particular  metallic  conductor  which 
can  not  be  insulated  shall  be  so  constructed  and  maintained 
as  to  afford  as  high  a  resistance  to  ground  as  practicable. 

SECTION  THREE.  Whenever  any  such  metallic 
conductors  forming  parts  of  such  current-carrying  electric 
circuits  are  not  insulated  from  the  ground,  such  circuits 
shall  be  designed,  installed,  operated  and  maintained,  so 
that  the  average  potential  difference  during  any  ten   (10) 

417 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 

consecutive  minutes  between  any  two  (2)  points  one  thous- 
and (1,000)  feet  apart  on  said  metallic  conductors  will  not 
exceed  one  (1)  volt,  and  further,  so  that  the  average  poten- 
tial difference  during  any  ten  (10)  consecutive  minutes,  be- 
tween any  two  (2)  points  more  than  one  thousand  (1,000) 

feet  apart  within  the  limits  of 

on  such  metallic  conductors,  will  not  exceed  seven  (7)  volts. 

SECTION  FOUR.  To  aid  in  determining  whether  or 
not  the  requirements  of  this  ordinance  are  being  complied 
with,  every  person,  firm  or  corporation  referred  to  in  Section 
One  hereof,  constructing,  operating  or  maintaining  metallic 
conductors  not  insulated  from  the  ground,  forming  parts  of 
such  current-carrying  electric  circuits,  shall  provide  and 
maintain    insulated   potential   wires    extending    from    some 

common  point  located  within  the  limits  of 

to  an  adequate  number  of  points  on  said  metallic  conductors, 
such  points  to  be  designated  from  time  to  time  b}"  the  author- 
ized representative  of  the  municipality,  and  such  person, 
firm  or  corporation  shall  also  provide  an  adequate  number  of 
voltmeters  so  arranged  with  reference  to  the  said  insulated 
potential  wires  that  the  potential  differences  between  the 
said  points  on  said  metallic  conductors  may  be  readily  and 
accurately  measured;  and  the  potential  differences  betw^een 
some  one  of  said  points  and  each  other  of  the  said  points,  as 
determined  by  readings  of  said  voltmeters  taken  at  least 
once  every  thirty  (30)  seconds  during  ten  (10)  consecutive 
minutes,  shall  be  measured  and  recorded,  said  readings  to 
be  taken  at  least  once  every  w^eek,  on  a  business  day,  during 
the  one  (1)  hour  of  maximum  difference  of  potential.  In 
lieu  of  such  readings  there  may  be  substituted  the  continuous 
records  from  an  adequate  number  of  recording  voltmeters 
installed  as  aforesaid.  The  authorized  representative  of  the 
municipality  and  any  other  interested  person  shall  have 
access  to  such  potential  wires,  voltmeters  and  records,  and 
shall  have  the  right  to  be  present  and  witness  such  measure- 
ments, and  shall  further  have  the  right  to  make  such  addi- 
tional measurements  as  he  may  consider  necessary  or  de- 
sirable. 

SECTION  FIVE.  Any  person,  firm  or  corporation 
violating  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  ordinance  shall,  upon 
conviction,  be  fined  not  more  than  Three  Hundred  Dollars 
($300.00)  for  each  offense,  and  each  day's  operation  of  such 

418 


DISTRIBUTION         OF         GAS 

system  of  current-carrying  electric  circuits  contrary  to  this 
ordinance  shall  constitute  a  separate  and  distinct  offense. 

SECTION  SIX.  This  ordinance  shall  take  effect  and 
be  in  force  from  and  after  four  (4)  months  from  its  passage 
and  legal  publication." 

The  foregoing  ordinance  has  been  adopted  by  several 
cities  in  Ohio,  and  in  one  instance  validated  in  court. 

Fire  Alarm  in  Gas  Office — Some  gas  companies,  es- 
pecially in  the  South  where  wood  construction  predominates 
and  cellars  are  lacking,  have  installed  a  fire  alarm  (same  as 
at  a  fire  engine  house)  in  the  superintendent's  or  other  office 
of  the  company  and  have  a  man  on  duty  both  day  and 
night  with  motor  cycle  and  tools,  to  answer  all  alarms. 
In  case  of  an  explosion  it  permits  the  gas  company  to 
obtain  first  hand  information. 

Gauge  Alarm — When  it  is  desired  to  make  a  gauge  alarm 
to  be  used  either  on  a  high  pressure  line  entering  a  low 
pressure  feeding  station  or  on  an  intermediate  or  belt  line 
pressure,  the  following  method  can  be  employed:  use  an 
ordinary  spring  gauge  and  drill  a  J/s"^^^^^  ^o^^  about  1  inch 
from  the  outer  circumference  of  the  glass  dial.  Remove  the 
insulation  from  the  end  of  a  wire  and  insert  same  into  the 
hole  in  the  glass  dial  to  within  i^-inch  of  the  graduated 
gauge  dial,  taking  care,  however,  that  it  does  not  touch  the 
latter.  Attach  another  wire  to  the  pipe  leading  to  the 
gauge.  The  two  wires  can  be  strung  any  distance  to  a 
common  electric  bell  and  dry  batteries.  The  wire  in  the 
glass  dial  of  the  gauge  should  be  turned  to  a  position  opposite 
the  pressure  on  the  dial  at  which  it  is  desired  that  the  bell 
should  ring.  When  the  pressure  drops  to  this  point,  the 
gauge  hand  will  make  a  contact  with  the  wire,  thereby  caus- 
ing the  bell  to  ring. 

Stealing  Gas — The  consumer  who  tampers  with  a  gas 
meter,  or  uses  a  by-pass  to  obtain  gas  without  registration, 

419 


DISTRIBUTION         OF         GAS 

commits  a  crime  the  same  as  thougii  he  walked  into  the  gas 
office  and  stole  money  from  the  cash  drawer. 

Many  companies,  especiahy  those  employing  the  con- 
tinuous meter  reading  system,  offer  a  regular  scale  of  rewards 
to  their  meter  readers  and  employees  for  detecting  by- 
passes, tampered  meters  (diaphragm  punctured,  or  other- 
wise injured  to  cause  meter  to  run  slow)  tipping  meters, 
leaks  at  meters,  leaks  in  street,  etc. 

Some  companies  are  paying  the  following  rewards: 

By-pass  (whole  house) S2 .  00 

Straight  connection 1 .00 

Line  off  service 75 

Leak  in  meter  case 10 

"     at  dial 05 

Meter  binding 10 

Not  registering  on  low  fire 15 

Not  registering 50 

Leak  in  service  curb  box 10 

Leak  in  main  line 25 

Using  auto  tires  over  3500  miles 1 .00 

Some  meter  readers  reading  meters  continually  use  the 
extra  three  or  four  days  a  month  not  employed  in  reading, 
to  scout  about  their  route  and  find  gas  steals  or  leaks.  When 
this  method  is  employed  the  salary  paid  is  usually  under  the 
customary  salary  paid  for  reading  meters  only.  The  rewards 
bring  the  amount  of  money  earned  to  above  the  regular 
salary. 

Employees  soon  become  exceptionally  keen  in  detecting 
the  odor  of  escaping  gas  or  in  finding  gas  steals. 

A  similar  method  is  employed  with  bookkeepers  in  de- 
tecting gas  steals.  The  bookkeeper  keeps  continual  watch 
on  the  amount  of  each  month's  gas  bill.  If  he  finds  it  par- 
ticularly small  he  reports  it  and  if  it  proves  to  be  a  case  of 
gas  stealing  he  is  rew^arded  accordingly. 

Suggestions  to  Gas  Companies  and  Employees — Never 
forget  the  danger  and  results  of  a  gas  explosion.  One  care- 
less act  may  cost  the  company  a  5110,000  law  suit.     Polite- 

420 


DISTRIBUTION         OF         GAS 

ness  and  courtesy  in  dealing  with  consumers  will  overcome 
the  natural  suspicion  the  public  holds  toward  the  gas  com- 
pany. Practically  all  suspicion  of  gas  company's  methods 
starts  with  the  employees  or  representatives. 

Remember  in  talking  to  a  consumer  that  you — at  one 
time — knew  as  little  about  natural  gas  as  the  consumer  you 
are  talking  to. 

A  good  complaint  man  is  the  most  valuable  of  employees 
of  a  gas  company. 

Never  leave  a  large  leak  unrepaired  or  unguarded. 

Do  not  depend  upon  sense  of  smell,  hearing,  rain,  or 
flies  to  determine  if  your  low  pressure  mains  are  gas  tight. 
None  of  the  foregoing  will  tell  you  accurately  or  conclusively. 
Except  to  ditch  down  to  the  main — the  bar  test  is  the  only 
accurate  method  of  determining  leaks  in  gas  mains. 

It  is  good  practice,  in  cities,  to  take  samples  of  gas  from 
sewer  manholes  and  have  the  gas  analyzed.  The  results  will 
show  the  percentage  of  natural  gas  to  air  or  sewer  gas.  Gas 
will  travel  through  an  entire  sewer  system.  If  any  natural 
gas  is  shown  in  the  analysis,  find  the  manhole  showing  the 
greatest  percentage  of  natural  gas,  then  look  for  leaky  mains 
in  that  vicinity.  In  one  city  the  writer  found  a  gas  engine 
w^orking  with  gas  sucked  from  a  sewer.  In  this  instance  the 
leak  which  had  been  caused  by  electrolysis,  was  located  one 
block  away  from  the  engine.  After  the  leak  had  been  re- 
paired the  gas  engine  was  compelled  to  receive  its  gas  through 
a  gas  meter. 

Wireless  Pipe  Locator-  -This  instrument  consists  of  a 
special  form  of  vibrator  and  an  induction  coil  with  six 
batteries,  together  with  detector  coil  and  receiver  for  tracing 
the  circuit.  The  advantage  of  this  outfit  is  that  it  enables 
the  operator  to  locate  lost  gas  services,  mains  or  water 
pipes  under  the  ground  between  two  points. 

In  operating  the  locator  it  is  necessary  to  attach  one 
wire  to  the  main  in  the  street  or  curl)  box  and  the  other  wire 

421 


DISTRIBUTION        OF        GAS 

to  the  gas  service  in  the  building  or  on  the  main  at  the  other 
known  point.  After  attaching  the  wires  at  these  two  points 
the  operator  can  trace  the  pipe  intervening  between  the  two 
points  by  holding  the  receiver  to  the  ear  and  following  the 
noise  or  tone. 

In  noisy  streets  or  where  the  line  lays  deep  it  is  necessary 
to  use  from  ten  to  twelve  dry  cells. 

It  will  not  locate  stub  lines,  but  only  a  pipe  line  between 
two  points  where  wires  can  be  properly  attached. 

Where  gas  lines  in  a  house  are  connected  with  a  hot 
water  heater,  disconnect  the  gas  meter  and  make  connection 
on  the  inlet  connection  of  the  service  line.  Otherwise  part 
of  the  current  is  liable  to  follow  the  water  lines,  making  it 
hard  to  detect  the  tone. 


Fig.  171—PULMOTOR   BEING   USED  TO  RESTORE   LIFE   TO  A   PERSON 
OVERCOME  BY  GAS 


422 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 

Purifiers  for  Natural  Gas  for  Domestic  Service  Where 
natural  gas  contains  a  high  percentage  of  sulphur  gas,  the 
excess  can  be  removed  by  using  a  small  tank  holding  about 
a  bushel  of  shavings  and  oxide  of  iron  and  provided  with  a 
cover  flange  that  will  permit  the  removal  and  changing  of 
the  shavings  and  oxide  of  iron  at  least  once  a  year.  It  is 
practically  the  same  process  in  a  small  way  as  is  practiced 
in  the  producer  gas  plants. 

This  tank  should  be  installed  on  the  inlet  side  of  the 
domestic  meter.  As  there  are  only  a  few  instances  in  the 
country  where  this  purifying  of  natural  gas  is  necessary, 
the  gas  companies  are  obliged  to  have  their  own  tanks 
specially  built. 

The  tank  might  be  described  as  being  about  the  size  of 
a  dish  pan  wath  a  cover,  the  inlet  and  the  outlet  on  the  op- 
posite sides.  The  outlet  and  inlet  connections  are  generally 
for  1-inch  or  IJ^-inch  pipe. 

Safety  or  Pop  Valves — Where  metal  safety  valves  are 
smaher  in  diameter  than  the  size  of  the  main,  they  will  not 
take  care  of  a  sudden  rise  of  pressure  in  a  low  pressure  main. 
In  order  to  be  effective  the  safety  valve  should  be  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  gas  main. 

Oil  tanks  can  be  used  only  on  low^  pressure  system.  For 
high  or  intermediate  pressure,  use  a  specially  made  safety 
valve.  This  style  of  valve  is  generally  used  on  intermediate 
or  belt  line  pressure. 


423 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 

Low  Pressure   Gauges — The  mercury  gauge  which  is 
most  commonly  used  on  low  pressure  systems  consists  of  a 
cast-iron   body,    and   a   glass   tube 
%-^L^'  for    the    mercury    column,    with   a 

scale  (in  pounds)  back  of  the  glass 
tube.  Each  space  is  divdded  into 
sixteen  parts  or  ounces,  each  large 
division  representing  one  pound. 
This  gauge  is  not  read  in  tenths  of 
one  inch  but  in  ounces  and  pounds, 
and  is  made  in  3,  5,  7,  10,  15,  20, 

Fig.  172—SAFETY   VALVE         ^^^  ^^  ^'  ^^^^^• 

Siphon  or  ''U"  Gauges— These 

are  the  most  convenient  low  pressure  gauges  in  use,  being 
portable  and  simply  screwed  to  the  piping  wherever  it  is 
desired  to  take  the  pressure. 

They  consist  of  a  U-shaped  tube  made  of  one  piece  of 
glass  tubing  bent  to  shape  in  sizes  from  4-inch  to  10-inch; 
and,  in  larger  sizes,  of  two  straight  glass  tubes  connected 
at  the  bottom  by  a  brass  bend.  Between  the  two  sides  or 
legs  of  this  tube  is  set  a  scale  graduated  in  inches  and  tenths, 
or  pounds  and  ounces,  as  desired.  A  bent  brass  tube,  or 
goose-neck,  is  connected  to  the  "U"  tube  at  the  top  and  runs 
down  the  side  to  the  gas  connection.  A  filling  screw  is  pro- 
vided for  the  water  or  mercury  and  a  vent  where  the  goose- 
neck is  connected  to  the  "U"  tube  to  relieve  the  gas  pressure 
on  the  inlet  side  after  shutting  off  the  gas  at  the  pipe. 

When  used  the  gauge  is  filled  with  water  or  mercury  to 
the  center  of  the  scale,  which  is  zero.  The  gauge  is  con- 
nected to  the  gas  supply  and  the  pressure  turned  on.  The 
liquid  will  fall  below  zero  on  the  inlet  side  of  the  "U"  tube 
and  rise  on  the  opposite  side  the  same  distance.  The 
distance  between  the  two  levels  of  the  liquid  as  shown  by 
the  scale  will  give  the  amount  of  pressure  in  inches  and 
tenths  or  in  pounds  and  ounces,  according  to  the  graduation. 

424 


DISTRIBUTION 


O     F 


GAS 


While  the  gauge  is  in  use  the 
downward  motion  of  the  hquid  in 
one  column,  due  to  the  pressure  of 
the  gas,  should  equal  the  rise  of 
liquid  in  the  opposite  column.  In 
case  the  water,  after  being  set  at 
zero,  should  not  drop  on  the  pres- 
sure side  as  much  as  it  rises  on  the 
other  side,  it  is  an  indication  that 
the  glass  tubes  are  not  of  equal 
diameter,  and  both  columns  must 
be  read,  their  sum  being  the  true 
pressure. 

Water  is  generally  used  in 
siphon  gauges  in  testing  domestic 
meters  and  measuring  small  gas 
wells.  It  is  also  used  in  testing 
large  capacity  meters  in  the  field. 

The  glasses  in  the  sizes  from 
4-inch  to  12-inch  are  set  in  with 
special  cement.  The  other  sizes 
have  the  joints  set  with  rubber 
gaskets  tightly  screwed  up,  which 
permit  of  broken  glasses  being 
readily  removed  and  replaced. 

The  scales  are  of  boxwood  and 
the  graduations  and  figures  are 
clearly  marked. 

The  4-inch  gauge  is  fitted  with  a  ground  joint  for  con- 
\  enience  in  making  connections  when  carried  about  the 
district.  The  bottom  section  of  the  ground  joint  has  an 
inside  thread,  ,^s-inch  iron  pipe  size.  From  the  O-incli  size 
up,  the  gauges  have  screw  connections  for  suitable  iron  pipe 
sizes. 


Fig.  173— MERCURY 
PRESSURE  GAUGE 


425 


DISTRIBUTION        OF        GAS 


The  sizes  usually  manufactured  run  from  4-inch  to  24- 
inch  (by  2-inch  steps).  Larger  sizes  than  24-inch  can  be 
made  specially  to  order. 

These  gauges  are  also  made  with  square 

Oends  and  fitted  with  gaskets  so  that  if  the 
glass  should  be  broken  it  can  be  easily  re- 
placed and  with  lower  bracket  of  iron  in 
case  thev  are  desired  to  be  used  with 
~  mercury.  They  can  also  be  fitted  with  a 
metal  scale  if  so  required. 

Differential  Gauges — These  are  of  the 
siphon  or  "U"  gauge  form  mounted  on  an 
oak  board.  The  "U"  tube  has  a  cock  at 
the  top  on  each  side  and  is  connected  at  one 
side  to  one  line  of  gas  and  at  the  other  side 
to  another  line. 

The  pressure  in  either  line  can  be  indi- 
cated or  the  difference  in  pressure  between 
the  two  lines.  When 
both  top  cocks  are 
closed  and  both  lines 
of  gas  are  on  the 
gauge,  the  difference 
in  pressure  can  be 
^J  read  on  the  scale. 

^J  When    either    line    of 

gas  is  shut  off  and  the 
top  cock  on  that  side 
is  opened  to  the  air, 
the    pressure    in    the 

other   line   is    indicated,    as   with   an 

ordinary     siphon    gauge.      They    are 

made  in  sizes  from  6-inch  to  30-inch 

Fig.  175—DIFFEREN 

by  2-inch  steps.  tial  gauge 


Fig.l74—SIPHON 

OR '•U"  GAUGE 

FOR  LOW 

PRESSURE 


426 


D     I     S     T     R     I     B     U     T 


O     N 


O     F 


GAS 


Fig.  i: 


■POCKET  GAUGE 


The  Equivalents  of  Ounces,  per  Square  Inch,  in  Inches  of 
Height  of  Columns  of  Water  and  Mercury. 


Ounces 

Inches  of 

Inches  of 

Ounces 

Inches  of 

Inches  of 

;     Water 

Mercury 

Water 

Mercury 

.146 

0.25 

.018 

7 

12.11 

.892 

.292 

0.51 

.037 

8 

13.85 

1.019 

.438 

0.76 

.055 

9 

15.58 

1.146 

.584 

1.01 

.074 

10 

17.31 

1.277 

1 

1.73 

.127 

11 

19.05 

1.401 

2 

3.46 

.255 

12 

20.78 

1.528 

3 

5.19 

.382 

13 

22.51 

1.655 

4 

6.92 

.510 

14 

24.24 

1.783 

5 

8.65 

.637 

1         15 

25.97 

1.910 

6 

10  38 

.765 

16 

27.71 

2  037 

27.71  inches  of  water  and  2.0374  inches  of  mercur\'  equal 
one  pound  per  square  inch  at  atmospheric  pressure  and  62 
deg.  fahr.  temperature.  Mercury  is  13.59  times  as  heavy  as 
water. 

427 


DISTRIBUTION         OF         GAS 


SERVICES  AND  HOUSE  PIPING— (Section) 


Ff?.  177— TAPPING  MACHINE 

Tapping  for  Services — Tapping  machines  for  making 
taps  for  services  in  low  pressure  mains  are  found  very  practi- 
cal. By  using  the  cup  in  making  the  tap,  considerable  gas 
can  be  saved  that  otherwise  would  be  lost. 

Care  should  be  used  to  note  that  the  machine  is  abso- 
lutely tight  on  the  main  before  starting  to  drill. 

PROPER  SIZE  TAP  DRILLS   TO  BE   USED  FOR  THE 
DIFFERENT  SIZED  PIPES. 


Nominal  Size 

Tap  Drill 

Inch 

Inch 

Vs 

M 

H 

7 

T6 

Vs 

¥2 

16 

Ya. 

16 

1 

lA 

Wa 

^Vo 

Nominal  Size 
Inch 


2 

2>y2 
3 

3^ 
4 


Tap  Drill 
Inch 


2H 

^16 

3M 


428 


D     I     S     T     R     I     B     U     T 


O     N 


O     F 


GAS 


Services  In  tajjpin*,^  a  low  pressure 
gas  main  for  domestic  use,  connections 
should  be  made  with  two  street  ells.  Do 
not  use  smaller  than  134-inch  ell  or  ser- 
vice. The  larger  the  pipe  the  better  the 
service.  Stop  cocks  should  be  placed  on 
the  service  near  the  curb  on  the  walk  side 
and  a  curb  box  placed  over  same.  Prior 
to  placing  the  stop  cock  in  the  line,  the 
core  of  same  should  be  oiled  to  enable  it 
to  be  easily  turned  by  a  long  wrench, 
purposely  made  for  use  in  curb  boxes. 

Expansion  sleeves  can  be  used  to 
good  advantage.  If  the  street  service 
and  curb  box  are  installed  first  and  the 
service  line  laid  by  a  plumber  or  gas  litter 
later,  should  be  slightly  out  of  line,  the 
sleeve  will  take  care  of  the  discrepancy 
and  make  a  tight  joint.  Leave  a  10-  or 
12-inch  nipple  on  outlet  of  curb  cock  to 
be  used  for  sleeve  connection.  Nipple  should  be  capped 
or  plugged  on  outlet  side  till  sleeve  and  ser\'ice  are  laid. 

Steel  Pipe — Do  not  use  small-sized  steel  pipe  in  house 
piping  wdicre  it  is  desired  to  make  any  bends  in  the  pipe. 


Fig.  178—COMMOX 
CURB  BOX 


Testing  House  Piping — After  piping  a  residence  for 
natural  gas  and  before  turning  the  gas  into  the  piping,  an 
air  test  should  be  made  with  fifteen  pounds  pressure  on  the 
house  piping  prior  to  connecting  house  piping  to  meter. 

This  test  should  be  made  in  the  presence  of  a  representa- 
tive of  the  gas  company  before  a  permit  is  issued  to  the 
consumer  to  use  gas.  The  method  of  detecting  leaks  under 
air  pressure  is  either  by  using  soap  suds  applied  to  the  joints 
or  using  ether  in  the  air  that  is  pumped  into  the  line. 

429 


DISTRIBUTION        OF        GAS 


Fig.  179— GAS  PROVING 
PUMP  AND  GAUGE 


In  making  this  test,  the  test  gauge  should  be  placed  in  a 
vertical  position. 

Gas  Proving  Pump  and  Gauge 
— Fig.  179  shows  a  gas  proving 
pump  and  gauge  used  for  making 
air  tests  in  house  piping.  A  com- 
mon spring  gauge  can  be  used 
instead  of  mercury  column.  The 
pump  is  equipped  with  cup  for  ad- 
mitting ether  into  piping,  in  which 
case  leaks  can  be  detected  from 
the  smell  of  leaking  air  and  ether. 

Rules  and  Regulations  for 
Gas  Fitting— For  a  complete  set 
of  rules  and  regulations  for  house 
piping,  setting  up  domestic  meters,  etc.,  the  following  sug- 
gestions are  submitted.  While  various  companies  publish 
different  rules,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  select  such  rules 
and  regulations  as  are  most  generally  used. 

Rule  1 — In  piping  new  houses  the  gas  company  will 
decide  where  gas  meter  shall  be  located  and  the  fitter  shall 
extend  the  riser  to  terminate  within  18  inches  of  the  pro- 
posed location  of  the  meter  and  to  the  right  of  same. 

Rule  2 — Provision  must  be  made  to  place  the  meter  on 
a  solid  support  where  it  can  be  conveniently  read  and  pro- 
tected from  the  weather.  Meters  shall  not  be  located  under 
side-walks,  or  show-windows,  near  furnaces  or  ovens;  locked 
in  compartments,  or  placed  in  other  positions  where  they 
will  be  inaccessible  to  adjust.  Under  no  conditions  shall 
plumbers,  fitters  or  other  parties  disconnect  any  meter, 
connect  to,  or  disturb  piping  on  inlet  side  of  meter  after 
once  set. 

Rule  3 — To  accommodate  different  tenants  the  com- 
pany will  set  as  many  meters  as  there  are  separate  consumers 

430 


DISTRIBUTION         OF        GAS 

in  a  given  building,  connecting  the  meters  to  one  ser\ice  pipe, 
providing  the  serA'ice  is  large  enough  to  provide  an  ample 
supply,  and  that  the  risers  or  pipes  leading  to  the  different 
tenants  are  extended  to  within  18  inches  of  the  proposed 
locations  of  the  meters. 

Rule  4 — Risers  must  not  be  scattered  but  must  be 
dropped  together  in  alignment  to  the  room  where  meters  are 
set.  They  must  be  kept  at  least  three  inches  apart  and  ex- 
tended not  less  than  twenty  inches  from  the  floor. 

Rule  5 — Elbows  and  not  tees  shall  be  used  on  all  meter 
inlet  connections.  All  connections  or  disconnections  of  meter 
for  any  purpose  will  be  made  by  employees  of  company  only. 

Ride  6 — All  gas  pipes  must  be  graded  from  meter  to 
risers,  free  from  traps  or  sags  and  properly  supported  with 
screws  and  gas  pipe  hooks  or  hangers.  When  it  is  impossible 
to  prevent  a  trapped  gas  pipe,  a  suitable  drip  shall  be  pro- 
vided, consisting  of  a  nipple  and  cap  located  in  an  accessible 
place. 

Rule  7 — Rubber  hose  connections  or  fittings  arranged 
for  rubber  hose  connections  for  gas  heaters  or  similar  appli- 
ance will  not  be  allowed. 

Rule  8 — Cement  shall  not  be  used  or  caulking  done  to 
repair  faulty  fitting  work,  and  all  imperfect  fittings  must  be 
replaced. 

Rule  9 — In  no  case  shall  valves  or  unions  be  placed  be- 
tween ceiling  and  floor  or  in  an  inaccessible  place  so  that  the 
stuffing  box  of  the  valves  cannot  be  repacked  or  union  gasket 
replaced. 

Rule  10 — Where  globe  valves  are  used  on  fire  con- 
nections, the  stems  must  be  packed  with  asbestos  packing. 
"Soft  seat"  valves  must  not  be  used. 

Rule  11 — In  running  a  line  through  a  flue  great  care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  pipe  and  fittings  are  free  from 
defect. 

431 


DISTRIBUTION         OF         GAS 

Rule  12 — Lead  pipes  must  not  be  used  under  any 
circumstances. 

Rule  13 — Use  as  few  elbows  as  possible.  Elbows  not 
absolutely  necessary  will  be  condemned.  When  impossible 
to  get  through  an  obstruction  such  as  a  beam,  off-set  the 
pipe  rather  than  use  elbows. 

Rule  llf. — Cast  iron    fittings  will  not  be  permitted. 

Rule  15 — Air  mixers  must  not  be  placed  in  air-tight  ash 
boxes,  but  where  a  free  flow  of  air  can  reach  them  at  all 
times.     Use  adjustable  mixers. 

Rule  16 — The  burr  left  on  inside  of  gas  pipes  must  in 
every  case  be  reamed  out. 

Rule  17 — All  outlets  or  risers  where  fixtures  are  not 
placed  must  be  left  securely  capped. 

Rule  18 — -All  drops  and  openings  for  lights  must  pro- 
ject at  least  1  inch  beyond  plaster  of  wall  or  ceiling,  and  must 
be  securely  fastened  to  joists  or  studding  or  to  notched  or 
cross  pieces  fastened  to  joists,  or  upright  studding. 

Rule  19 — Unions  or  bushings  shall  not  be  used  except- 
ing to  connect  stoves  or  fires. 

Rule  20 — No  more  than  one  elbow  will  be  allowed 
between  burner  and  mixer. 

Rule  21 — Burners  must  have  threaded  connections. 
"Slip  joints"  will  not  be  allowed. 

Rule  22 — In  re-modeling  or  extending  old  gas  piping, 
connections  must  be  made  where  sizes  can  be  maintained. 
If  this  cannot  be  done,  a  new  line  must  be  run  to  meter. 

Rule  23 — All  gas  piping  must  be  tested  with  air  pressure 
on  a  mercury  or  spring  gauge  showing  ten  pounds,  which 
shall  be  maintained  for  fifteen  minutes  without  falling.  Gas 
will  be  turned  on  by  an  authorized  agent  of  the  company 
only,  after  such  test  has  been  properly  made  and  report  of 
same  filed  with  the  gas  company.     If  meter  stop  is  closed, 

432 


DISTRIBUTION 


O     F 


GAS 


do  not  open  under  any  circumstances.  Application  must  be 
made  to  the  company  for  gas  to  be  turned  on.  Fire  tests 
will  not  be  allowed  under  any  circumstances  on  inside  work. 
Rule  24 — Where  pipe  runs  through  a  stone  or  brick 
wall  opening  around  the  pipe  must  be  cemented. 

Rule  2d — Place  a  damper  in  all  stove-pipe  and  chimney 
throats. 

The  tables  following  shall  govern  the  greatest  length  of 

pipe  of  the  various  sizes  specified  to  be  used  for  fuel  and 

illuminating  purposes: 

For  1  Stove,    1-inch  Pipe. 

For  2  Stoves,  1-inch  Pipe  to  first,  ^4-inch  to  second. 
For  3  Stoves,  1-inch  Pipe  to  first  and  second,  ^-inch  to  third. 
For  4  Stoves,  Ik^-inch  Pipe  to  first  and  second,  1-inch  to  third 
%-inch  to  fourth. 


Size  of  Pipe 
Inches 


Gas   Lighting 

Greatest  Length 
Allowed  Inside  Building 
Feet 
15 


Greatest  Number 
of  Burners 

1 


1    . 

2 

1 


10 

4 

25 

.  6 

40 

15 

70 

35 

100 

60 

150 

100 

200 

200 

^-inch  pipe  will  in  no  case  be  allowed. 


Size  of  Pipe 
Inches 


Gas   Ranges 


Greatest  Length 
Allowed  Inside  Building 
Feet 

40 

70 


Heater  No. 


Automatic   Water   Heaters 

Greatest  Length 
Size  of  Pipe  Allowed  Inside  Building 

Inches  Feet 

1      70 

II4 100 

Wi 100 

2     125 


433 


DISTRIBUTION         OF         GAS 


Instantaneous   Water  Heaters 

Greatest  Length 
vSize  of  Pipe  Allowed  Inside  Building 

Inches  Feet 

% 40 

1     70 

iH 100 

Fires 

Greatest  Length 

Size  of  Pipe  Allowed  Inside  Building  Number  of 

Inches  Feet  Fires 

M 10 1 

M 30 1 

1     100 1 

IM 350 1 

M 20 2 

\\i 60 2 

11^ 160 : 2 

1     40 3 

IM 120 3 

1     20 4 

\M 90 4 

IM 70 5 

V/i 125 5 

\M 40 6 

V/i 90 6 

1^ 30 7 

IH 75 7 

IM 15 8 

V/i 50 8 

\y2 40 9 

1^ 30 10 

Hot  Air  Furnaces 

For  hot  air  furnaces,  boilers,  etc.,  using  burners  having  two  or 
three  mixers,  use  Ij^-inch  pipe. 


434 


DISTRIBUTION 


O     F 


GAS 


Capacities  of  Orifices — The  capacity  per  hour,  in  cubic 
feet,  of  thin  orifices  similar  to  openings  in  air  and  gas  mixers 
is  given  in  the  following  table;  the  plate  one-eighth  inch 
thick  and  the  pressures  as  indicated. 

Capacities  of  Thin  Orifices  in  Cubic  Feet  per  Hour. 


Diam- 

Pressure (Inches  of  Water) 

eter  OF 

1 

1       1.7              3.4              5.2              6.9 

8.6 

Inches 

Capacity  per  Hour  (in  Cubic  Feet) 

32 
64 


6.3 
10.3 
13.3 
20.4 
25.4 
40.2 
61. 

131. 

173. 

222. 


8.2 

12.5 

15.9 

18.4 

13.6 

19.4 

23.9 

27.3 

18.4 

26.5 

32.1 

37.4 

26.5 

37.1 

45.9 

53.2 

34.7 

49.8 

61.6 

72. 

52.9 

79.5 

95.7 

111. 

82.5 

119. 

147. 

168. 

178. 

253. 

300. 

352. 

229. 

333 

409. 

467. 

294. 

418. 

514. 

600 

20. 

30.7 

41.1 

57.8 

80.3 

124 

191. 

400. 

529. 

654. 


Note — The  above  table  was  made  from  actual  tests. 
Specific  Gravity  of  gas  0.64. 
Atmospheric  pressure  14.4  i)ounds. 
Measurement  basis  4  ounce. 


rig.    180—iySTALL.\TIOX  OF  FAIRMOXT  GAS  A  \  f)  LIGHT  CO.,   FAIK- 
MOXr.  W.  ]'A.      Sho'.i'iuji  two  S()(i  II.  P.  .Single  Tmniem  Gas  Comf^rc'^sors 


435 


PART   TAVELVE 

Income  and  Office  vSuggestions 

INCOME— PER  CAPITA  INCOME  TABLES— SER- 
VICE APPLICATION— DOMESTIC  METER  IN- 
STALLATION FORM— METER  DEPOSIT  CARD 
—OFFICE  GAS  BILL  CARD— METER  READER'S 
RECORD  SHEET  AND  VARIOUS  REQUEST,  RE- 
MITTANCE AND  RECEIPT  FORMS. 


Income — -The  average  annual  income  of  a  domestic 
meter  in  small  cities  where  natural  gas  sells  for  25  cents  per 
thousand  cubic  feet  is  approximately  $30.  In  large  cities 
the  average  will  be  slightly  higher.  The  foregoing  is  true 
in  the  southern  as  well  as  in  the  northern  states. 


Percentage  of  Natural  Gas  Sold  for  Domestic  Purposes 
Each  Month  in  the  Year  1908  in  the  Following  Cities 
in  the  State  of  Kansas: 


Topeka 

January 13.88 

February 15.18 

March 13.43 

April 8.83 

May 6.61 

June 3.81 

July 3.13 

August 2.74 

September 3.20 

October 4.73 

November 10. 13 

December 14.33 

100.00^, 
436 


Lawrence 

Kansas  City 

16.23 

15.83 

16.60 

17.15 

11.50 

11.22 

7.14 

7.39 

5.39 

5.67 

2.66 

2.77 

2.04 

2.42 

2.07 

2.43 

2.44 

2.98 

7.26 

6.20 

10.62 

10.64 

16.05 

15.30 

100.00% 

100.00% 

INCOME       AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTIONS 

Table  Showing  Number  of  Domestic  Meters  Required  for 
Towns  and  Cities  of  Different  Population,  Approximate 
Amount  of  Gas  Required  to  Supply  Same  on  the  Coldest 
Day  and  the  Approximate  Income  with  Gas  at  25,  30 
and  35  Cents  per  Thousand  Cubic  Feet. 


Approximate  Annual  Income 

Number 

Approximate 

*  Pop  Il- 
lation 

Amount  of  Gas 

of 

Required  for 

At  25c 

At  30c 

At  35c 

Meters 

Coldest   Day 

per  1000 

per  1000 

per  1000 

Cu.  Ft. 

Cu.  Ft. 

Cu.  Ft. 

Cu.  Ft. 

1,000 

200 

200.000 

S  6.000 

S  6.800 

S  7.400 

2,000 

400 

400.000 

12.000 

13,600 

14.800 

3,000 

600 

600.000 

18.000 

20.400 

22.800 

4,000 

800 

800.000 

24.000 

27.200 

29.600 

5.000 

1.000 

1.000.000 

30.000 

34.000 

37.000 

7.000 

1.400 

1.400,000 

42.000 

47.600 

51.800 

10,000 

2,000 

2,000,000 

60.000 

68.000 

74.000 

15.000 

3.000 

3,000,000 

90,000 

102.000 

111.000 

20.000 

4.000 

4,000,000 

120,000 

136,000 

148,000 

25.000 

5.000 

5,000,000 

150.000 

170,000 

185,000 

30,000 

6.000 

6,000,000 

180,000 

204,000 

222,000 

40,000 

8.000 

8,000,000 

240,000 

272,000 

296.000 

50.000 

10,000 

10,000,000 

300,000 

340.000 

370.000 

60.000 

12.000 

12,000,000 

360.000 

408.000 

444,000 

70.000 

14.000 

14.000.000 

420.000 

476.000 

518.000 

80.000 

16.000 

16,000,000 

480.000 

504.000 

592.000 

90,000 

18,000 

18.000.000 

540.000 

612.000 

666.000 

100,000 

20,000 

20.000.000 

600.000 

680.000 

740,000 

'No  allowance  made  for  colored  jiopulation. 


Fig.  tsi. 
437 


INCOME      AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTIONS 


o 


> 

O 
O 

< 


z 

O 


a. 
< 

u 

> 

Pi 
w 

CAD 


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c 

G 
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§  : 

o  • 

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z  ^ 


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^  s 


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r  ^  t; 


SI 


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s  s  ^ 

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438 


COME       AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTIONS 


<     ^ 
O     ^ 

o 

I— ( 
H 
< 

Oh 
< 


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i 

o 
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o 
o 

Q 
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O-E. 

O   r:   o 


5:    >: 


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Ci      o^ 


439 


INCOME      AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTIONS 


DOMESTIC   METER  INSTALLATION  RECORD 

Doesville  Gas  Company 


Fort  Worth.  Tej 


19  No. 


24933 


X7       .  Connect  Meter 

For       i4-^C^^        .  /0-<$-^ 

Disconnect  Meter 

For                                                                       -  .. .. 

Remarks _ 

Street 

Remarks -... 

Conneeted  Meter  -^o.     ...3.3.A..^.>:'0..... 

Kind          "P^rZ^C^^^^^^^^t^ 

3Ute ^.<^^5£^^ 

Date 3~    y^^  -  /fZ-y^ 

Diaconnected  Meter  No. 

Kind                                             _ . 

State 

Date 

Fitter. 

EBterad  Ledger,  folio    >^  ^.line...  >-./ 

Entered  Meter  Index,  folio ^  <0. 

Entered  Ledger,  folio line 

Entered  Meter  Index,  folio _ 

Inetmetion*— Fitter  must  use  indeliWe  pencil  for  fiUing  in  his  portion  of  this  blank.  If  the 
fitter  makes  a  mistake  in  entering  "Stat«"  he  is  not  to  erase  the  figures  first  written,  but  should 
run  his  pencil  through  same  and  then  insert  correct  figures; 

Fig.  18i— DOMESTIC  METER  IXSTALLATIOX   RECORD  FORM 
{Reduced   in   Size   Approximately   One-Half) 

METER  DEPOSIT  RECORD  CARD 

Deposit  No 


Name 


INTEREST    PAID. 


To. 
To. 
To. 
To. 
To. 
To. 


Fig.  18.5— METER   DEPOSIT   RECORD   CARD 

440 


INCOME       AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTIONS 


STATE  OF  METER. 


A  No. 


(^JVyL^^^^ 


a^ 


41                                                    *i 

4* 

** 

s. 

'^0/\/& 

L.No. 

1 

i 

1 

1915 

1916 

DATE 

Jan* 

1917 

1918 

Feb. 



Mar* 
Apr. 
May 

June 

jjuly 

Aug. 

Sept. 

1 
1 

Oct 

i 

Nov. 

Decl 

Fig.  186   METER  READER'S  RECORD  SHEET 
(To  be  used  in  loose  leaf  binder) 


441 


INCOME      AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTION 


SI6I 


3  +j     • 


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i 

Z  1?:  ti  ^  tj  t? 


S  ii  2  Z  Z  Z  <  ■ 


o  ^ 


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442 


NCOME       AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTIONS 


I 
a. 

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CO 


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O 


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it    3 
o  o 

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HI 

o 

L. 
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O      O 


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o 


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Q. 

O   — 


0    bo    V 

■=5   3   2- 

M        O        C 


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>    V.    0 

i  ^-^ 

3     «0     (U 

Ou   a  u 
c   c  £ 

§00 

4)      4> 

.SO* 

-I  "5  s 


(«    ^    o 


443 


INCOME      AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTIONS 


Office  Gas  Bill  Card— To  be  used  when  regular  mailing 
card  is  lost. 

To   the   FORT  WORTH   GAS   COMPANY,   Dr. 
1001  Throckmorton  Street 

FORT  WORTH,  TEXAS 


OFFICE   HOURS. 
8  30  a.    m.   to   .5   p.    m 


Gas  by  Meier,   Month  of. 
State  Present  Month .... 
State  Last   Taken 


...  000 
. . . .000 

Cubic  Feet  Consumed 000/  Gas  at  50c 

Received  Payment, 

FORT  WORTH  GAS  COMPANY 

By 

Fig.  189^0FFICE  GAS   BILL  CARD  FORM 

Notice  Requesting  Payment  of  Discount  When  Remittance 
Without  Discount  was  Received  at  Gas  Office  After 
the  10th  of  the  Month. 


191... 

Dear  Sir: 

We  have  your  check  for in  payment  of 

Gas  Bill.      This  is  the  NET  amount  due,  hut  as  your  remittance  was 

not  mailed  until  the inst.,  you  are  due  the  gross  amount  $.  .  . 

Your  remittance  will  he  applied  on  account,  leaving  a  halance  due 

us  of  $ Kindly  favor  us  with  your  check  for  halance  due. 

FORT  WORTH  GAS  CO. 

By 


Fig.    190— DISCOUNT  REQUEST  FORM 
444 


INCOME       AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTIONS 


Order  No.. 
NAME  


HOUSE    FITTER'S  AND   METER   SETTER'S    REPORT. 

Bill  No 


..Loeitlon.. 


Slie 

Number 

»■"••"• 

s.„  ;nu»i»,|    »-.um   II 

Six. 

*^n1 

Nipples 

1            1 

1            1 

BURNERS 

„ 

1 

^^ 

„ 

., 

, 

Heat 

1 

1            1 

., 

1 1 

, 

. 

„ 

1 1 

luT 

....... 

E,K 

„ 

1 i 

1 

OraU. 
Sheet  Iron 

. 

1 

1 

' 

^^ 

1 

Hoor  PUtes 

M   Lea.U(-et) 

_, 

Crowfeet 

„ 

Eit'n  Rods 

Cocks 

Rcducere  

' i-.s. 

"      "         N'.P. 
"      •■       "L.S. 

M'fr  Covir,   Uood 

Caps                 ..   . 









kog.   "        Brass 

Collars 

"      ••       "L.S.    

..  ..    .vpj ! 



Manifold 

PI 

"      "      "L.S. 

Pipe                   %iii. 

r«t 

.. 

Bushings 



1 

Lip  Tnions 

MUers  (Jlo.   Br. 

N.P. 

Kittg. 

"    Kittg.  Slip 

1» 

•^■ippl™ 

„ 

1 

Filter... 
Helper.. 
Helper.. 


Fin.    1!)1    REPORT  BLANK   FDR   L.ABOR  AND   MATERIAL   iSED   I\ 
HOUSE    PIPING   AM)   METER  SETTING  JOBS 


445 


INCOME      AND      OFFICE      SUGGESTIONS 


Order  No.    . 

Service  for 
Approved: 


Street 


e.„. 

»  I  HI.  K)  mi:ti:» 

Sire 

«».b., 

-'- 

Oescnjticn 

Si« 

Nurnter 

trntunl 

Bnshings— Malleable 

Caps 

Caps 

Cock— Servire 

Cock— Meter 

Collars 

Collars 

Couplines— Dresser 

Couplings— Dresser 

Curb  Boxes 

Ells— Malleable 

Ells-Malleable 

■•        Street 

Klls— Street 

Kxpanslon  Joints 

Kxpansion  .loinf: 

Nipples                       X 

Nipples                         N 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Plags-nin.k 

Plucs— Black 

Reducers  " 

Reducers  " 

Saddles 

Tees-M:.lleable 

Tces-Malleal.le 

Union  Flange 

Valve— Oate 

— fi? 

^ 

'" 

Pipe                                       1  ilKl. 

Pipe                                              1  iUL-l. 

Pipe                             1%  in.b 

Pi,H.                                          I'A  inch 

Pipe                              IK  incl. 

Pipe                                          iViinch 

Pipe                                 '^  inch 

1 

Pipe                                                 2in.  b 

Pipe                                     iiuh 

1 

P.pe                                                     in.), 

L.b« 

Hate 

Hours 

Rat. 

Foreman 

Foreinun 

i 

Helper 

Jlelpe. 

Ilelpor 

llelpei 

Helper 

Helper 

Helper 

Helper 

Helper 

Helpei 

Helper 

Helpe, 

Ti.tal 

Tol;,l 

=_ 

Fig. 


192  FOREMAN'S  REPORT  FOR  LABOR  AXD  MATERIAL 
USED  OX  IXSTALLIXG  SERVICE  LIXE 


446 


INCOME       AND       OFFICE       SUGGESTIONS 


n 


DIAGRAM  OF  SERVICE  LINE  REPORT-MAIN  TO  CURB. 


rBlcTioNi— To  complete  lliis  Keport.  lengths  and  sizes  of  I 
alwve  diagram  by  drawinf;  a  line  from  tUo  centre  of  nearest  si 
Street  Main  is  tapped,  tben  a  line  to  right -angle  from  this  poi 

Indicate  dislan.es  and  sizes  of  tUe   Street  Main  and  I'ipe  from   M 

ve  tbe  line  for  distances  and  below  the  line  for  size  of  Pipe 


re  to  be  clearly  indicated  fn 
lerseciion  to  the  point  at  whi'  h 
tbe  premises 

Curb   hy   ligures 


Fig.  193  REVERSE  SIDE  OF  FOREMANS 
REPORT  BLANK,  Figure  No.  192. 


447 


PART   THIRTEEX 

Domestic  Meter 

FLAT  RATE— INSTALLING  METER— METER  HOUSE 
—  DISCONNECTING  METER  —  PROVING  —  RE- 
PAIRING METERS  —  CONTINUOUS  METER 
READING— CAPACITIES— TIN  METER  PARTS- 
STANDARD  PROVER— CUBIC  FOOT  BOTTLE- 
ERRATIC   METERS. 

Flat  Rate  System — Changing  from  a  flat  rate  system  to 
a  meter  system  will  result  in  a  saving  of  from  sixty  to  seventy 
per  cent,  of  the  gas  previously  consumed.  This  great  differ- 
ence can  be  attributed  to  various  causes,  principally  as 
follows :  On  a  flat  rate  system  consumers  wall  invariably  use 
cheap,  wasteful  burners;  they  w411  drill  out  the  mixer  when 
the  pressure  is  low  in  an  endeavour  to  get  a  larger  supply; 
they  pay  no  attention  to  turning  oft'  the  gas  when  work  is 
finished  or  the  temperature  of  the  house  is  sufficiently  high; 
and  when  the  temperature  does  get  too  high,  the  tendency  is 
to  open  the  doors  and  windows  in  preference  to  turning  down 
the  fire.  In  fact,  fires  and  lights  are  left  burning  night  and 
day.  All  of  these  practices  do  the  consumer  no  good  and 
waste  thousands  of  cubic  feet  of  this  ideal  fuel.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  gas  is  a  luxury  and  should  not  be  wasted. 

With  a  meter  installed,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  test  piping 
for  leaks  by  turning  off  all  fires  and  lights  and  noting  by  the 
small  dial  whether  there  is  any  gas  passing  through  the  meter. 
This  is  impossible  on  a  flat  rate. 

With  a  meter  system  the  life  of  any  gas  field  will  be 
prolonged  several  years  over  a  flat  rate  system. 

448 


DOMESTIC         METER 

Domestic  Gas  Meter — All  things  considered,  the  gas 
meter  is  the  most  reliable  measuring  apparatus  made.  This 
may  be  a  startling  statement;  nevertheless,  it  is  true.  If, 
in  a  test  for  accuracy,  one  hundred  of  the  best  watches  were 
compared  with  one  hundred  gas  meters,  for  one,  two,  three 
or  more  years,  both  operating  under  the  same  conditions, 
i.  e.,  exposed  to  the  action  of  gas,  heat,  cold,  etc.,  the  average 
registration  of  one  hundred  meters  would  be  more  accurate 
than  that  of  the  one  hundred  watches. 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  tin  gas  meter 
shown  in  Figure  Number  198.  The  diaphragms — two  in 
number — are  in  the  lower  part  of  the  meter;  the  valves  and 
fittings  in  the  upper  part.  The  index  registers  the  quantity 
of  gas  delivered  by  the  meter. 

The  principle  of  a  gas  meter  can  be  readily  understood. 
We  are  all  familiar  with  bellows  such  as  are  used  at  fireplaces. 
Let  us  assume  a  pair  of  bellows  is  empty;  then  that  the 
handles  are  extended  and  the  bellows  filled  with  air.  If  the 
handles  are  afterwards  brought  together  the  air  is  expelled. 
If  a  stop  be  placed  on  the  bellows,  both  when  closed  and 
when  opened,  they  must  make  a  certain  fixed  stroke  and 
receive  and  give  out  a  fixed  quantity  of  air  with  each  motion. 
The  diaphragm  of  a  gas  meter  does  the  same  thing.  It 
receives  a  certain  fixed  quantity  of  gas  and  then  expels  it, 
having  the  same  stroke  every  time.  By  means  of  the  attach- 
ments in  the  meter  each  stroke  is  registered  and  translated 
into  cubic  feet  on  the  index,  which  is  a  simple  piece  of  geared 
mechanism  by  which  the  cubic  feet  are  recorded  by  the  thou- 
sand. In  a  gas  meter  there  are  tw^o  diaphragms  or  bellows. 
as  only  one  would  give  an  intermittent  supply. 

The  gas  meter  may  also  be  likened  to  a  steam  engine. 
Steam  is  admitted  through  the  slide  valves  of  an  engine,  the 
valves  being  of  the  same  kind  as  are  used  in  gas  meters;  the 
piston  is  pushed  forward  and  a  certain  amount  of  steam 
admitted  to  the  cylinder — the  cylinder  of  the  engine  corre- 

449 


DOMESTIC        METER 

sponding  to  the  diaphragm  of  the  meter.  Steam  is  then 
taken  on  the  other  side  of  the  piston  and  the  piston  pushed 
back  again.  Each  complete  stroke  requires  or  takes  a  given, 
fixed  quantity  of  steam.  Knowing  the  quantity  of  each 
stroke,  the  steam  could  be  registered  in  thousands  of  cubic 
feet,  if  it  were  desired  to  do  so,  as  gas  in  a  meter. 

The  steam  engine  is  also  similar  to  the  gas  meter,  in 
that  the  steam  would  rather  not  work  the  engine  if  it  could 
help  it.  If  there  should  be  a  leak  in  the  valve,  around  the 
piston  rings,  or  elsewhere,  the  steam  would  pass  out,  as  it 
would  be  easier  than  pushing  the  engine.  It  is  a  well-known 
law  of  physics  that  fluids  will  take  the  path  of  least  resistance. 
Gas  acts  the  same  way  in  the  meter,  having  a  tendency  to 
pass  through  without  working  the  bellows  if  it  can  find  any 
point  for  leakage.  For  this  reason  the  general  average  of 
gas  meters  is  slow,  or  against  the  gas  company. 

Prepayment,  or  "slot,"  meters  are  regular  meters  with 
a  mechanical  attachment  so  that  coins  can  be  inserted  and 
a  proportionate  amount  of  gas  purchased.  A  valve  closes 
gradually,  to  give  warning,  w^hen  the  gas  paid  for  has  been 
consumed. 

It  is  the  custom  of  gas  companies  to  inspect  meters 
regularly  and  so  keep  them  in  good  condition.  This  practice 
is  a  protection  to  both  the  consumer  and  the  company. 
Records  are  kept  of  the  test  on  each  meter,  and  it  is  sur- 
prising how  close  the  results  are.  It  can  be  safely  said 
the  average  net  result  is  slow,  or  in  favor  of  the  consumer, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  this  average  error  is  less  than  2 
per  cent.  It  is  a  fact  of  public  record  that  the  bulk  of 
meters,  even  when  complained  of,  will  show  slow  regis- 
tration. Some  few  meters  register  fast,  owing  to  occasional 
derangement  of  the  meter,  which  it  is  not  possible  to  avoid 
with  any  mechanical  appliance;  but  the  total  number 
of  fast  meters,  in  proportion  to  all  meters  in  use,  is  relatively 
very   insignificant.     This   can   easily   be  verified   from   the 

450 


DOMESTIC         METER 


records  of  city  or  state  meter  inspectors  anywhere  in  the 
United  States  or  throughout  the  world. 

Many  people,  without  thinking  about  the  matter, 
believe  that  gas  is  wrongfully  charged  to  them;  this  is  a 
mistake.  Gas  meters  are  made  by  manufacturers  who 
specialize  in  this  work,  and  these  manufacturers  do  not 
send  out  incorrect  meters;  in  fact,  they  take  as  much 
professional  pride  in  their  product  as  do  the  makers  of 
watches  or  clocks.  The  workmen  who  prove  the  meters  are 
also  sworn  to  let  no  meter  pass  if  it  is  not  correct.  vSome 
law  suits  have  occurred  over  gas  bills,  and,  after  scientific 
testimony,  the  meter  has  been  upheld  in  every  case. 

There  are  several  reasons  to  account  for  the  popular 
distrust  of  gas  meters.  One  is  that  very  few  are  familiar 
w4th  the  principle  of  a  meter,  and  without  knoudedge  of  its 
construction  they  do  not  realize  that  the  meter,  is  a 
scientific  measuring  instrument.  Another  reason  is  that  bills 
are  usually  paid  after  the  gas  has  been  consumed.  People 
pay  more  willingly  for  what  they  have  on  hand  yet  to  be  used 
than  they  do  for  material  or  commodities  already  used,  as 
in  the  case  with  gas.  Another  reason  is  that  the  meter  will 
always  deliver  gas  when  called  upon  and  not  forget  to  record 
it.  Very  few  people  remember  how  many  lights  have  been 
burned,  or  how  long  the  gas  stove  has  been  used  during  the 
month.  Dark  and  cloudy  weather  causes  greater  consump- 
tion, and  in  severely  cold  weather  people  stay  at  home  and 
gas  heaters  are  used  more  frequently  and  continuously. 
Other  things  afTect  gas  bills  which,  in  reality,  are  under  the 
control  of  the  householder.  A  dark  wall  paper,  for  instance, 
will  absorb  light,  while  a  light  coloring  will  reflect  it. 

Reading  a  Domestic  Gas  Meter — A  general  recognition 
of  the  amount  of  gas  burned  would  be  better  understood  if 
people  would  read  the  registration  on  the  index  of  their  gas 
meter.  The  accompanying  view  represents  the  ordinary- 
type  of  index  as  generally  used  in  gas  meters.     In  reading. 

451 


DOMESTIC 


METER 


always  take  the  last  figure  the  hand  or  pointer  has  passed, 
and  always  read  the  numerals  in  sequence,  beginning  with 
the  highest  dial  on  the  index.  Remember  when  the  pointer 
is  between  two  figures  always  take  the  smaller  figure.  It 
is  never  necessary  to  reset  a  meter  index.  When  the  finger 
on  the  circle  of  highest  denomination  has  made  a  complete 
revolution,  all  fingers  will  correspondingly  revert  to  zero, 
and  the  entire  index  will,  therefore,  automatically  reset 
itself.  In  reading  an  index  keep  a  record  of  the  amount  of 
gas  consumed,  and  on  taking  the  next  reading  deduct  the 
amount  of  previous  reading  and  the  difi'erence  will  represent 
the  amount  of  gas  consumed  in  the  period  between  the  pre- 
sent and  the  previous  reading  of  the  meter. 


CUBIC 


FEET 


J^*   v^^Hi^/V   *  01:^2^^.  ^o-^S^/l./,*  ^tiBi^V 


TO    READ    YOUR   METER 

Each  hand  moves  in  a  different  direction,  indicated  by  the  arrows. 
Read  the  figure  that  the  hand  has  actually  passed,  beginning  with 
the  dial    to  the  left—add   two  ciphers   to  the  right  of  your  figures 

DIAL  AS  ABOVE  READS  108,400 

Subtract  the  last  month's  reading  from  the  present  index  and   the 
difference  will  be  the  gas  used  to  date  in  cubic  feet. 

Pi^    194—COXSL'MERS    I XSTRUCTIOX   C  ARD   FOR   READING  METERS 

If  in  doubt  about  the  accuracy  of  your  meter,  ask  the 
gas  company  to  test  it,  and  be  present  at  the  test  if  you 
wish.  The  method  of  testing  or  proving  is  simple  and  easily 
understood. 

452 


DOMESTIC        METER 

Continuous  Meter  Reading — This  system  has  many 
advantages  in  favor  of  both  the  consumer  and  the  gas 
company. 

Primarily  where  gas  companies  formally  required  six 
meter  readers  to  complete  the  work  in  the  last  few  days  of 
the  month  they  would  need  under  the  new  system  but  one 
who  would  be  reading  meters  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
days  a  month.  The  one  reader  would  naturally  become  more 
efficient  and  less  liable  to  make  mistakes,  working  continu- 
ously, than  the  greater  number  working  but  a  few  davs 
each  month. 

With  the  old  system  it  was  often  necessary  to  retain 
men  throughout  the  month  even  though  they  had  little 
other  work  to  do,  in  order  to  have  competent  meter  readers. 
This  was  an  unnecessary  expense  but  could  not  be  very  well 
avoided. 

It  prevents  inconvenience  to  the  public  by  doing  away 
with  the  "waiting  line"  at  the  gas  office  so  common  on  the 
1 0th  of  the  month. 

It  does  away  with  the  extra  clerks  necessary  to  receive 
the  money  during  the  last  day  of  discount  under  the  old 
system. 

There  is  practically  no  difference  to  the  consumer  as 
the  meter  is  read  on  the  same  date  each  month. 

Capacity  of  Domestic  Meters — The  true  method  of 
judging  the  maximum  capacity  of  meters  is  by  determining 
the  amount  of  gas  a  meter  will  pass  with  a  certain  intake 
pressure  and  a  certain  discharge  pressure  while  the  meter 
is  connected  in  a  service  line  working  under  conditions 
similar  to  those  found  in  the  average  house.  The  average 
range  of  low  pressure  in  domestic  ser\'ice  is  from  4  to  8 
ounces,  and  it  is  essential  to  deliver  gas  to  the  stove  or 
range  at  about  three  oinices  pressure.  Consequently  in 
selecting  the  proper  size  meter,  it  is  good  policv  to  determine 

453 


DOMESTIC        METER 


the  capacity  by  what  the  meter  wiU  pass  with  a  four  ounce 
pressure  on  the  intake  or  inlet  and  a  three  ounce  pressure 
on  the  discharge  or  outlet. 

While  one  may  compare  the  open  flow  capacities  of  diff- 
erent makes  of  domestic  meters,  it  is  impossible  to  judge  the 
rated  capacity  under  working  conditions  by  this  method. 

Open  flow  capacity 
means  the  amount  of  gas 
or  air  a  meter  will  pass 
under  certain  intake 
pressure  and  with  the 
discharge  open  into  the 
atmosphere. 

Differential  Pressure 

— Is  the  absorption  of  gas 
pressure  by  the  working 
of  the  meter  while  the 
gas  is  passing  through  it. 

Installing  Domestic 
Meters — Do  not  install 
a  domestic  meter  outside 
of  a  building.  If  it  is 
found  necessary  to  do  so, 
it  should  be  covered  with 
a  small  box  or  house 
especially  built  for  it.  A 
metal  box  can  be  con- 
structed so  as  to  permit 
the  use  of  a  seal  on  the 
box  and  connections  to  the  meter.  This  will  decrease  the 
liability  of  any  tampering  with  the  meter.  An  opening  can 
be  made  in  the  metal  box  so  that  the  dial  can  be  read  with- 
out removing  the  box.  Fit  over  this  opening  a  cover  or  lid 
similar  to  that  used  on  tin  meters. 


Fig.   193— DOMESTIC  METER  HOUSE 

USED  BY    THE  OHIO  FUEL 

SUPPLY  CO. 

Note  the  method  of  sealing. 


454 


DOMESTIC        METER 

The  meter  should  be  set  in  a  dry  place,  preferably  on  a 
shelf,  with  the  dial  facing  away  from  the  wall.  In  cities 
having  street  car  service,  do  not  set  the  meter  near  any 
water  or  artificial  gas  pipes. 

In  case  gas  has  previously  been  used  in  the  building, 
see  that  the  stop  cock  or  valve  back  of  the  meter  (inlet  side) 
is  shut  ofiF;  also  see  that  the  shelf  and  meter  connections  are  in 
good  condition. 

Turn  the  gas  on  at  the  curb  stop  cock  first. 

Go  through  the  house  or  building  and  cellar  and  examine 
all  lines  and  connections  from  the  meter  and  see  that  there 
are  no  openings.  Do  not  take  the  word  of  anyone  in  regard 
to  this,  but  examine  them  personally.  If  any  connections  are 
found  open  it  is  better  to  cap  or  plug  them  at  company  ex- 
pense. Then  turn  the  gas  through  the  meter  and  watch  the 
foot  or  index  hand  for  five  minutes  to  ascertain  whether 
the  lines  through  the  building  are  tight.  If  they  are  not 
tight,  shut  off  the  gas  at  the  street.  If  they  are  tight  turn  on 
the  gas,  light  the  hxtures  in  the  house,  making  sure  that  the 
air  is  all  forced  out  of  the  house  lines,  and  that  the  gas  supply 
is  good,  and  watch  the  meter  to  see  that  it  registers.  See 
that  there  are  no  unions  or  connections  back  of  the  meter 
other  than  the  regular  meter  connections.  Test  connections 
and  meter  for  leaks.  Take  the  number  and  reading  of  the 
meter  just  before  you  set  it. 

Meters  should  be  set  with  the  clock  box  properly  sealed 
and  with  cap  lock  boxes  on  the  inlet  meter  connection. 

The  gas  must  not  be  turned  on  at  the  meter  under  any 
circumstances  when  the  occupants  of  the  building  are  not 
at  home. 

A  meter  setter  or  reader  must  not  enter  an  occupied 
house  or  building  which  is  locked  or  try  to  gain  admittance 
with  a  skeleton  key. 

Disconnecting  Domestic  Meter — Examine  and  find  out 
the  number  of  meters  on  the  service  line.    Shut  off  the  gas  at 

455 


DOMESTIC        METER 

the  curb  and  try  to  light  a  fire  to  see  if  it  is  shut  off.  vShut 
off  stop  cock  back  of  meter,  that  is,  on  the  inlet  side  of  the 
meter.  Remove  the  meter,  capping  or  plugging  the  end  of 
the  service  line.  Take  the  number  and  state  of  the  meter. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  in  securing  the  name  of  maker, 
size,  number  and  meter  reading.  Reports  must  be  made 
out  on  the  premises. 

In  apartment  houses  where  there  is  more  than  one  meter 
and  the  gas  cannot  be  shut  off  at  the  curb,  shut  the  stop-cock 
back  of  the  meter,  plug  the  opening  in  the  header,  and  seal 
the  stop  cock. 

In  houses  where  there  is  only  one  meter  on  a  ser\^ice,  the 
meter  must  not  be  removed  under  any  circumstances  until 
after  the  gas  has  been  shut  off  at  the  curb.  If,  for  any  reason, 
the  curb  stop  can  not  be  shut,  do  not  disconnect  the  meter, 
but  return  the  "disconnect  order"  to  the  shop  or  office,  noting 
on  same,  in  writing,  the  reason  why  curb  stop  cock  cannot  be 
closed.  The  foreman  should  see  that  the  curb  box  or  stop  is 
repaired  at  once  and  meter  removed. 

In  case  a  building  is  being  torn  down,  if  the  cellar  wall  is 
in  good  condition  and  is  not  going  to  be  disturbed,  shut  off 
the  gas  at  the  curb,  and  plug  or  cap  the  service  in  the  cellar. 
Where  the  wall  is  being  disturbed,  cut  the  line  and  plug  the 
stop  cock  at  the  street  box  until  new  building  is  completed. 
Foreman  should  keep  a  record  of  all  buildings  torn  down  and 
services  plugged  until  they  are  restored  to  usual  conditions. 

All  stop  cocks  on  the  inlet  side  of  meters  should  be  locked 
with  a  stop  lock  and  all  inlet  meter  connections  should  have 
a  cap  lock  box. 

Street  or  curb  boxes  should  not  be  installed  without  a 
base.  The  base  prevents  the  box  being  jammed  onto  the 
service  line  and  injuring  it. 

Where  one  or  more  buildings  are  supplied  from  the  same 
connections  to  a  street  main,  separate  stops  and  curb  boxes 

456 


DOMESTIC         METER 

should  be  placed  on  each  line,  as  nearly  in  front  of  the  build- 
ings as  is  possible. 

Meter  setters  or  inspectors  should  not  use  a  light  in  look- 
ing for  leaks  or  making  inspections.  Use  a  large-necked 
bottle  with  soap  suds.     Apply  suds  with  a  small  brush. 

Before  leaving  unfinished  street  work  for  the  night,  the 
foreman  in  charge  should  see  that  at  least  two  red  lanterns 
are  burning  at  all  ditch  openings  or  street  obstructions.  If  the 
ditch  can  be  closed  with  an  hour's  overtime  work,  it  is  better 
to  complete  the  work  than  to  leave. 

Repair  all  leaks  on  company  lines  at  once.  If  unable  to 
do  so,  report  to  the  office  in  writing  as  to  location  and  size 
of  leak. 

Do  not  set  meters  where  they  are  difficult  to  read  or  to 
change.  Dials  should  be  set  at  zero  at  the  meter  shop  where 
they  can  be  properly  sealed. 

Treat  domestic  consumers  in  a  courteous  manner.  Give 
consumers  all  possible  information  that  will  tend  to  better  the 
conditions  of  their  heating,  lighting,  or  cooking  appliances. 

Proving  Domestic  Meters — Prior  to  proving,  the  meter 
should  stand  in  the  proving  room  until  it  attains  the  same 
temperature  as  that  of  the  room.  The  writer  has  known 
cases  where  a  meter  brought  into  the  proving  room  on 
a  cold  winter  day  and  immediately  tested  was  found  to  be 
15  per  cent  slow,  while  after  it  became  thoroughly  warmed 
tested  O.  K. 

The  method  employed  is  simply  that  of  comparing  a 
known  volume  of  air  in  the  prover  with  the  reading  on  the 
small  dial  of  the  meter,  the  air  passing  through  the  meter  by 
its  own  pressure,  usually  two  inches  of  water.  The  error 
allowed  is  two  per  cent,  fast  or  slow.  To  be  considered 
accurate  the  small  dial  of  the  meter  must  register  within 
two  per  cent   of  the  volume  indicated  upon  the  prover  scale. 

The  water  seal  in  the  prover  should  have  the  same 
temperature  as  the  temperature  of  the  room.      The  meter 

457 


DOMESTIC        METER 

should  be  proved  on  two  volumes;  in  other  words,  at  two 
dififerent  speeds,  and  be  adjusted  so  as  to  register  alike  on 
both.  For  the  ordinary  house  meter  these  volumes  are  at  the 
rate  of  fifty  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  per  hour. 
After  proving,  the  meter  should  be  sealed  and  a  record, 
giving  date  of  test  and  proof,  should  be  kept  in  a  book  for 
that  purpose. 


Fig.  196— HYDRO  PXEUMATIC  METER   TESTER 
FOR   TESTING   TIN  METERS  FOR  OUT- 
SIDE    LEAKS      WITH      TWO      TO 
THREE   POUNDS  PRESSURE 

458  ^ 


DOMESTIC         METER 

Repairing  Domestic  Meters — Meters  should  not  be  re 
paired  or  taken  apart  unless  they  are  afterward  proved  on  a 
prover.     It  requires  some  experience  to  properly  repair,  test 
and  correct  a  domestic  meter. 

Tin  Meter  Repairing — Tin  meters  should  be  tested  from 
one  to  three  years  after  being  placed  in  use,  the  frequency  of 
the  tests  depending  upon  the  quality  of  the  gas  measured  and 
the  work  performed. 

To  repair  the  meters  remove  front,  back  and  top  plates, 
examine  diaphragms  carefully,  and  clean  valve  seats  and 
covers  with  gasolene.  If  a  valve  cover  rocks,  it  is  probable 
that  a  small  quantity  of  gas  will  pass  the  meter  without 
registering.  In  this  case,  valve  covers  and  seats  should  be 
carefully  ground,  using  line  emery  paper  placed  over  a  small 
flat-surfaced  iron  plate. 

After  the  meter  has  been  repaired,  and  is  ready  for  test- 
ing, a  test  should  be  made  with  a  small  light  at  the  meter 
outlet  to  determine  if  meter  will  register  on  a  small  volume. 

Diaphragms  in  tin  meters  are  tested  for  leaks  with  five 
inches  water  pressure.  The  cases  are  tested  with  seven  inches 
water  pressure.  After  meters  are  completed,  a  test  for  leaks 
is  made  under  three  pounds  pressure,  by  immersing  the  meters 
in  water. 

In  proving  tin  meters,  one  and  one-half  inch  water  pres- 
sure is  used  where  they  are  to  measure  artificial  gas,  and  two 
inches  w'ater  pressure  is  used  where  they  are  to  measure 
natural  gas. 

To  correct  erratic  tin  meters,  move  the  tangent  wrist 
outward  on  fast  meters  and  toward  the  center  for  slow  meters. 
The  distance  to  move  a  tangent  wrist  to  correct  for  one  per 
cent.,  varies  on  different  sized  and  different  makes  of  meters. 

459 


DOMESTIC        METER 


Fig.  197 — Top  View  of  Glover  Type  of  Domestic  Meter. 

Instructions  for  Setting  Valves  in  Tin  or  Slide  Valve 
Meter — Set  the  back  valve  cover  "B"  so  that  the  port  "E" 
to  the  diaphragm  is  completely  open,  and  the  front  valve 
cover  "A"  is  covering  both  ports  of  its  seat. 

Then  the  tangent  "C"  should  be  soldered  so  that  it 
will  be  in  a  straight  line  with  the  link  "D"  as  shown  at  "F". 

Above  instructions  are  for  right  hand  meters.  For  left 
hand  meters  reverse  the  positions  of  valves  A  and  B. 

Diaphragm  Oil — Use  equal  parts  of  the  following  oils: 
greasite,  pale  meter  oil  and  dark  cylinder  oil. 

Allow  diaphragms  to  soak  in  the  oil  thoroughly ;  then  wipe 
ofif  the  excess  oil  before  placing  the  diaphragms  in  the  meter. 

This  combination  of  oils  can  be  used  on  any  standard 
make  of  tin  or  iron  meters. 


460 


DOMESTIC         METER 


Fig.  ntS — Interior  \' ieu'  of  Glover  Tyl^e  Pomestir  Melt 

461 


DOMESTIC        METER 
LIST    OF   TIN    METER   PARTS 

X umber   in    Diagram   on    Page  JfO I 

101  Index  118  Valve  Cover  Wire 

102  Axle  or  Index  Shaft  119  Valve  Cover  Wire  Guide 

103  Axle  Wheel  or  Index  Shaft     121  Valve  Wrist  and  Pin 

Wheel  122  Valve  Link 

104  Axle  Bearing  or  Index  Shaft  123  Valve  Seat 

Rest  129  Short  Flag  Arm 

105  Worm  130  Crank 

106  King  Post  or  Crank  Frame  131  Flag  Arm  Rivet 

107  Click  132  Crank  Stuffing  Box 
*108  Tangent  Jamb  Xut  134  Crank  Stuffing  Box  Cap 
*109  Tangent  Post  or  Bat  201   Disc 

*110  Tangent  Post  Pin  202  Disc  Guide 

*111  Tangent  Arm  203  Diaphragm 

tll2  Long  Flag  Arm  204  Disc  Wire 

tl29  Short  Flag  Arm  205  Disc  Wire  Bracket 

113  Flag  Wire  (same  as  208)  §206  Flag 

ill4  Flag  Stuffing  Box  Cap  §207  Rock  Shaft  and  Carriage 

1115  Flag  Stuffing  Box  208  Flag  Wire  (same  as  113) 

117  Valve  Cover  209  Flag  Wire  Step 

*Parts  Nos.  lOS,  109,  110  and  111,  Tangent  complete. 
tParts  Nos.  112  and  129.  Flag  Arm  complete. 
jParts  Nos.  114  and   115,  Flag  Stuffing  Box  complete. 
§Parts  Nos.  206  and  207.  Flag  complete. 


Rating  of  Tin  Meter  Capacities — The  first  rated  capacity 
of  meters  was  based  on  the  then  vStandard  EngHsh  Burner, 
consuming  six  cubic  feet  an  hour. 

Under  this  rating  the  hourly  capacity  of  a  three-light 
meter  would  be  3  x  6,  or  18  cubic  feet. 

A  five-light  meter,  30  cubic  feet,  and 

A  ten-light  meter,  60  cubic  feet. 

Others  in  proportion. 

While  the  meters  as  made  to-day  still  have  the  original 
rating  and  are  proved  under  this  racing  as  required  by  law, 
it  is  by  no  means  their  actual  working  capacity,  which  is  now 
generally  determined  by  the  amount  of  gas  which  they  will 
pass  under  a  certain  differential  in  pressure,  usually  five- 
tenths,  with  a  one  and  one-half-inch  or  two-inch  water  pres- 
sure on  inlet  of  meter. 

462 


DOMESTIC 


METER 


Standard  Meter  Provers — 
The  meter  provcr  is  the  stand- 
ard instrument  by  which  the 
proof  of  a  meter  is  ascertained. 
All  meter  provers  should  be  cali- 
brated by  means  of  a  cubic  foot 
bottle  which  has  been  standard- 
ized by  the  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards at  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  meter  prover  consists 
of  a  tank  containing  water  i  n 
which  is  suspended  a  bell  or  hold- 
er having  a  supporting  chain  go- 
ing over  a  large  balance  wheel. 
At  the  end  of  this  chain  is  a 
weight  holder  with  weights  to 
give  the  desired  gas  pressure 
inside  the  bell.  To  the  axis  of 
the  balance  wheel  is  attached  an 
involute  with  a  counterpoise 
weight,  the  purpose  of  which  is 
to  maintain  a  uniform  pressure  (fj 
at  all  points  of  travel  of  the  bell. 
The  wheel,  chain,  involute  and 
weights  are  supported  by  a  frame- 
work consisting  of  three  columns  and  a  triangular  bridge 
across  the  top  of  the  columns.  The  bases  of  the  columns 
are  screwed  to  sockets  in  the  top  of  the  tank. 


Fig. 


UJO^S TA XDARD  METER 
PROVER 


The  bell  is  guided  by  three   rollers   at   the   bottom    and 
three  at  the  top  of  the  bell. 


On  the  front  of  the  bell  is  a  scale  properly  graduated  in 
cubic  feet  and  fractions  thereof  by  means  of  which  is  ascer- 
tained the  exact  ainount  of  gas  or  air  passed  through  a  meter 
during  its  test. 

463 


DOMESTIC         METER 

On  the  front  of  the  body  is  a  channel  having  at  its  top  a 
valve  and  two  cocks — right  and  left-hand.  A  hose  is  at- 
tached to  either  one  of  the  cocks,  as  desired.  On  the  outer 
end  of  this  hose  is  a  coupling  for  attaching  to  the  meters  to 
be  tested.  The  connection  to  the  meters  is  made  by  using 
intermediate  reducers  or  increasers  called  inlet  connections, 
except  for  one  size  which  the  hose  coupling  will  fit,  usually 
the  ten-light  meter. 

Tw^o  thermometers  are  provided  for  each  prover — one  to 
give  the  temperature  of  the  w^ater  and  the  other  that  of  the 
air.  A  six  inch  siphon  gauge  is  also  furnished  to  give  the 
pressure  under  which  the  prover  is  being  operated. 

These  provers  are  usually  constructed  of  galvanized  iron 
throughout,  either  japanned  or  plainly  painted.  They  are  also 
made  with  brass  tank,  or  body,  japanned,  and  polished  copper 
bell,  this  latter  form  being  preferred  by  many  on  account  of 
its  great  durability. 

The  regular  sizes  are  2-foot,  o-foot,  10-foot  and  20-foot 
capacity. 

Cubic  Foot  Bottle — This  instrument  is  the  basis  of  all  gas 
measurement.  The  correctness  of  any  gas  measuring  device 
is,  in  its  final  analysis,  determined  by  the  cubic  foot  bottle. 

It  is  standardized  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  and  its  accuracy  is  beyond  dispute. 

The  principle  that  it  works  on  is  the  simplest  of  the 
simple,  namely,  a  volume  of  one  cubic  foot  of  gas  being 
displaced  by  a  volume  of  one  cubic  foot  of  water.  The 
mechanical  detail  required  to  do  that  conveniently  and 
accurately  is  not  so  simple. 

As  can  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  there  is  a  cabinet 
containing  and  supporting  the  cubic  foot  bottle,  its  system 
of  piping  and  its  tanks.  The  bottle,  as  the  copper  receptacle 
in  the  center  of  the  cabinet  is  called,  has  a  capacity  of  one 

464 


DOMESTIC 


METER 


cubic  foot.  At  its  top  and  bot- 
tom are  gauge  glasses  with  point- 
ers. When  the  water  rises  from 
the  bottom  pointer  to  the  top 
one,  one  cubic  foot  of  gas  has 
been  deHvered. 

The  operation  is  as  follows : 
The  lower  tank  is  filled  with  wat- 
er and  this  water  is  pumped  to 
the  upper  tank.  All  temperatures 
of  water,  room  and  instrument 
tobe  tested  are  equalized.  Then 
close  all  cocks,  open  the  vent 
above  the  bottle  and  open  the 
cocks  that  admit  the  water  from 
the  top  tank  to  the  bottom  of  the 
bottle  and  allow  the  water  to 
come  to  the  pointer  on  the  lower 
gauge  glass.  At  this  instant  close 
the  lower  cock.  Then  close  the 
vent  and  open  the  cocks  in  the 
line  of  piping  leading  to  the 
article  being  tested.  Then  reopen 
the  cock  admitting  water  to  the 
bottle.  Allow  the  water  to  fill 
the  bottle  and  to  come  to  the 
pointer  on  the  upper  gauge  glass. 
Close  the  water  cock  and  the 
piping  cock.  Then  one  cubic  foot 
of  air  has  been  delivered.  Next 
open  the  vent  and  the  cock  ad- 
mitting water  to  the  lower  tank 
and  allow  the  water  to  drain  out 

of   the   bottle.     Next   pump  the  water  from  the  lower  tank 
to  the  upper.     Then   repeat   the    method  of  procedure    of 

465 


Fig.  200 

CUBIC  FOOT  BOTTLE  FOR 

TESTIXG  PROVERS 


DOMESTIC        METER 

operation  of  the  bottle  if  successive  cubic  feet  are  desired. 
Extreme  care  must  be  exercised  to  always  have  tempera- 
tures exact  and  unvarying.  In  some  instances  the  opera- 
tion must  be  conducted  in  a  room  in  which  the  air  is 
saturated  with  aqueous  vapor. 

Correction  of  Erratic  Meters  {By  F.  H.  OUpkant) — A 
fast  meter  is  one  which  registers  too  many  cubic  feet  and  a 
slow  meter  is  one  which  registers  too  few  cubic  feet,  as 
compared  with  a  prover  which  measures  the  correct  number 
of  cubic  feet  and  which  is  the  standard  to  which  all  meters 
are  compared. 

The  multipliers  in  the  following  tables  are  all  less  than 
one  for  fast  meters  and  greater  than  one  for  slow  meters. 

A  meter  on  which  the  dial  shows  10.5  cubic  feet  when  the 
prover  shows  10  cubic  feet  is  called  five  per  cent,  fast  and 
must  be  multiplied  by  .952  to  reduce  the  quantity  to  standard. 
A  meter  on  which  the  dial  shows  9.5  cubic  feet  when  the 
prover  shows  10  cubic  feet  is  called  five  per  cent,  slow  and 
must  be  multiplied  by  1.053  to  bring  it  up  to  the  standard. 

Because  the  dial  of  many  meters  cannot  be  read  as 
accurately  as  the  scale  on  the  prover,  it  is  preferred  in  some 
cases  to  pass  the  air  or  gas  through  meter  and  prover  until 
the  meter  registers  10  cubic  feet,  then  shutting  off"  and  reading 
the  prover  scale.  For  this  use  a  second  table  is  introduced 
which,  however,  is  consistent  with  the  first.  This  method 
simplifies  the  computation  for  the  multiplier,  which  shows 
directly  from  the  prover  scale,  being  one-tenth  the  value  of 
the  prover  scale  reading. 

The  correction  factor  or  multiplier  to  correct  erratic 
meters  is  determined  by  the  following  formula: 

Prover  Readim 


^Multiplier 


^i5 


Meter   Readin 


Example: — Say  the  reading  of  a  meter  is  10.0,  while   the 

12  5 
prover  reads  12.5,  then  the  multiplier  — —    =  1.25.     Or,  say 

466 


DOMESTIC        METER 


c 
the  prover  scale  reads  8  when  the  meter  reads  10.    Then—  = 

.8  is  the  multiplier. 

The  formula  for  determining  the  percentage  that  a  meter 
is  fast  is  as  follows:   (Meter  Reading  —  Prover  Reading) 

Prover  Reading 
100  =  percentage  error  fast. 

Example: — Say  a  meter  registers   10  cu.  ft.  while  the 

^    (10—8)    X    100        200         .^.,.,  ,    ^ 

prover  shows  8, =   -^    =    2r>%    error   last. 

o  o 

The  formula  for  determining  the  percentage  error  of  a  slow 

meter  is  as  follows : 

(Prover  Reading  —  Meter  Reading)  ^^ . .... 

^ —  X  100  =  percentage 

Prover  Readmg 

error  slow. 

Example: — vSay  a  slow  meter  registering  10  showed  12.5 

,            ^            '               (12.5-10)^  100        250       ^^ 
cu.  It.  on  the  prover,  then  -— =  — —  =  ZO  per 

cent,  error  slow. 

The  multipliers  for  slow  and  fast  meters  are  determined 
by  the  following  formulas.     Multipliers  for  meters  that  are 

slow  = Multipliers  for  meters  that  are 

100  —  per  cent  slow. 

100 

fast  =    

100  +  per  cent  fast. 

Example: — Suppose  a  meter  is  said  to  be  20  per  cent. 
slow,  how  is  the  correction  factor  or  multiplier  to  be  deter- 

100  100 

mined^     In  this  case,  the  multiplier    =  ~~rz       rr.  =  'zz  = 

lUO  —  2U         oU 

1.25. 

On  the  other  hand,  suppose  a  meter  is  reported  25  per 

100  100 

cent.  fast.    Here  the  multiplier  =   , ,,,.    ,    ^_  =  77:^  =  .80. 

100  -\r  lo       12.0 

467 


DOMESTIC 


METER 


Table  Giving  Multipliers  for  Correction  of  Erratic  Register 
of  Meters  Slow  and  Fast 


Slow  Meters 

Fast  Meters 

Meter 

Read- 

Percent- 

Multi- 

Percent- 

Multi- 

ing 
Cu.  Ft. 

Prover 
Reading 
Cu.Ft. 

age  of 

Variation 

(Prover 

being 

pliers 

to  Correct 

Slow 

Meters 

Prover 
Reading 
Cu.  Ft. 

age  of 

Variation 

(Prover 

being 

pliers 
to  Cor- 
rect 
Fast 

Standard) 

Stand'd) 

Meters 

10 

13.7 

27.00 

1.37 

10.0 

0.00 

1.00 

10 

13.6 

26.47 

1.36 

9.9 

1.01 

.99 

10 

13.5 

25.93 

1.35 

9.8 

2.04 

.98 

10 

13.4 

25.37 

1.34 

9.7 

3.09 

.97 

10 

13.3 

24.81 

1.33 

9.6 

4.17 

.96 

10 

13.2 

24.24 

1.32 

9.5 

5.26 

.95 

10 

13.1 

23.66 

1.31 

9.4 

6.38 

.94 

10 

13.0 

23.08 

1  30 

9.3 

7.53 

.93 

10 

12.9 

22.48 

1.29 

9.2 

8.70 

.92 

10 

12.8 

21.88 

1.28 

9.1 

9.89 

.91 

10 

12.7 

21.26 

1.27 

9.0 

11.11 

.90 

10 

12.6 

20.63 

1.26 

8.9 

12.36 

.89 

10 

12.5 

20.00 

1.25 

8.8 

13.63 

.88 

10 

12.4 

19.35 

1.24 

8.7 

14.94 

.87 

10 

12.3 

18.70 

1  23 

8.6 

16.28 

.86 

10 

12.2 

18.03 

1.22 

8.5 

17.65 

.85 

10 

12.1 

17.35 

1.21 

8.4 

19.05 

.84 

10 

12.0 

16.67 

1.20 

8.3 

20.48 

.83 

10 

11.9 

15.97 

1.19 

8.2 

21.95 

.82 

10 

11.8 

15.26 

1.18 

8.1 

23.46 

.81 

10 

11.7 

14.53 

1.17 

8.0 

25.00 

.80 

10 

11.6 

13.80 

1.16 

7.9 

26.58 

.79 

10 

11.5 

13.04 

1.15 

7.8 

28.20 

.78 

10 

11.4 

12.28 

1.14 

7.7 

29.87 

.77 

10 

11.3 

11.50 

1.13 

7.6 

31.58 

.76 

10 

11.2 

10.71 

1.12 

7.5 

33.33 

.75 

10 

11.1 

9.91 

1.11 

7.4 

35.13 

.74 

10 

11.0 

9.09 

1.10 

7.3 

37.00 

.73 

10 

10.9 

8.26 

1.09 

7.2 

38.88 

.72 

10 

10.8 

7.41 

1.08 

7.1 

40.84 

.71 

10 

10.7 

6.54 

1.07 

7.0 

42.86 

.70 

10 

10.6 

5.66 

1.06 

6.9 

44.93 

.69 

10 

10.5 

4.76 

1.05 

6.8 

47.06 

.68 

10 

10.4 

3.85 

1.04 

6.7 

49.26 

.67 

10 

10.3 

2.91 

1.03 

6.6 

51.51 

.66 

10 

10.2 

1.96 

1.02 

6.5 

53.85 

.65 

10 

10.1 

0.99 

1.01 

6.4 

56.25 

.64 

10 

10  0 

0.00 

1.00 

6  3 

58.73 

.63 

468 


DOMESTIC        METER 

Examples:  vSuppose  10  cubic  feet  in  a  meter  showed 
only  7.5  cubic  feet  in  the  prover,  the  meter  is  33.33  per  cent, 
fast.  In  the  table  opposite  7.5,  multipHer  .75  is  found.  vSay  a 
meter  in  use  recorded  42.250  cubic  feet  when  disconnected  and 
w^as  found  to  be  33.33  per  cent,  fast,  then  42.250  X  .75  = 
31,687.5  cubic  feet,  which  is  the  corrected  quantity.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  a  meter  recording  10  cubic  feet  gave  11.5  cubic 
feet  in  the  prover,  the  meter  is  13.04  per  cent,  slow,  and  in 
the  table  opposite  11.5  cubic  feet  a  multiplier  of  1.15  is 
recorded.  If  the  meter  registered  42.250  cubic  feet  when 
disconnected,  then  42.250  X  1.15  =  48,587.5  cubic  feet  is 
the  correct  quantity.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  multiplier 
for  correcting  erratic  meters  is  the  quantity  recorded  by  the 
prover  with  the  decimal  point  moved  one  figure  to  the  left. 
Then  if  the  prover  shows  11.5  cubic  feet  and  the  meter  10 
cubic  feet,  the  correcting  multiplier  is  1.15.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  prover  shows  7.5  cubic  feet  and  the  meter  10, 
the  correcting  multiplier  is  .75.  If  the  prover  should  show 
10.125  and  the  meter  10  cubic  feet,  the  multiplier  \vill  be 
1.0125,  etc.  It  is  much  more  direct  to  use  the  multiplier 
than  reduce  the  percentages  to  get  the  corrected  quantity 
from  an  erratic  meter. 


469 


DOMESTIC        METER 


Complaint  Meter — P'igure  Number  201  shows  a  Com- 
plaint Meter  with  top  open,  and  with  recording  chart  in 
position  on  drum.  This  meter  is  so  constructed  that  its 
clockwork  runs  for  one  week,  and  when  set  in  the  house  of 
a  consumer  will  record  on  the  paper  chart  of  the  cylinder 
the  exact  amount  of  gas  consumed,  marking  the  hours  gas 
was  consumed,  either  day  or  night.  This  makes  such  a 
convincing  record  that  the  consumer  cannot  dispute  the 
facts  shown,  and  learns  to  his  own  satisfaction  that  his  bills 
are  correct. 

On  the  other  hand,  should  the  consumer  be  positive 
that  no  all-night  lights  are  used,  and  yet  the  meter  records 
consumption    during    the    night    period,    it     would     show 

practically  that  there  is 
some  house-pipe  leakage 
in  the  dwelling. 

The  c^dinder  is  so  con- 
structed that  in  its  re- 
volution it  gradually 
works  on  the  worm-gear 
horizontal  shaft  from  one 
side  of  the  meter  to  the 
other,  taking  the  full 
seven  days  to  complete 
the  run,  the  small  marker 
shown  in  front  of  the 
cylinder  making  an  ab- 
solute record  of  gas  con- 
sumed during  each  hour 
of  that  period.  These 
record  sheets  or  charts 
are  detachable  from  the 
cylinder,  and  upon  com- 
pletion of  any  week's  work  may  be  taken  off  and  new 
charts  substituted,  making  the  meter  continuous  in  its  op- 
eration. 

470 


Fig.  2ni~C0MPLAIXr    METER 


DOMESTIC 


METER 


In  the  Figure  Number  202  is 
shown  a  record  taken  from  a  com- 
plaint meter  after  having  been 
through  a  complete  week's  run, 
extending  from  Monday,  the  seventh 
of  the  month,  about  10:55  a.m., 
until  the  following  Monday,  the 
fourteenth  of  the  month,  at  about 
2:05  p.  m.  By  following  the  lines 
drawn  by  the  marker  on  this  chart 
it  is  easily  seen  that  the  first  gas 
passed  through  this  meter  at  about 
4:50  p.  m.  on  the  afternoon  of  the 
seventh,  the  meter  maintaining  a 
good  average  consumption  until  10 
o'clock  in  the  evening.  From  that 
time  on  the  meter  showed  appar- 
ently a  slight  consumption  until  7 
o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  eighth, 
from  which  time  until  4:45  in  the 
afternoon  there  was  no  gas  con- 
sumed. On  the  evening  of  the 
eighth  of  the  month  the  family  was 
evidently  out  for  the  evening,  as 
very  little  gas  was  passed,  etc.  The 
history  as  to  further  consumption 
can  be  readily  traced  out  by  the 
chart  through  the  successive  days. 

Figure    Number    201    shows   a 

five  light  meter  equipped  with  the 

In  this  size  meter 

each  dash  on  chart  represents  two 

feet  of  gas  passed.    In  larger  sized  meters  each  dash    would 

represent  a  greater  amount  of  gas  passed. 


Fig.  302— TAPE  OR  CHART  .     .  ,        . 

FROM    COMPLAIXT    METER   COmplamt  dcVlCC 


471 


PART  FOURTEEN 

Domestic  Consumption  of  Gas 

High  Gas  Bills— When  a  consumer  considers  his  gas- 
bill  too  high,  before  complaining  to  the  gas  company,  he 
should  test  the  house  piping  for  leaks.  This  is  very  easily 
done  by  turning  out  all  fires,  lights  or  hot  water  burners  and 
watching  the  small  dial  on  the  meter  for  at  least  fifteen 
minutes  to  see  if  it  registers  any  gas  passing.  If  the  hand 
on  this  dial  moves  it  indicates  leakage  in  the  house  piping. 


If  small  dial  registers 
in  15  minutes 

Cubic  Feet  per 
month  leakage 

Loss  per  month  with 

gas  at  30c.  per  1000 

cubic  feet 

1  cu.  ft. 

2  " 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 

2,880 

5,760 

8,640 

11,520 

14,400 

10.86 
1.73 
2.59 
3.46 
4.32 

The  small  hand  or  any  other  hand  on  the  dial  will  not 
revolve  and  register  gas  unless  there  is  gas  passing  through 
the  meter. 

According  to  S.  S.  Wyer  (see  chart  on  page  182)  of  the 
volume  of  gas  actually  delivered  to  the  domestic  consumer 
about  16  per  cent,  is  wasted  through  leakage  on  the  premises 
of  the  consumer  and  about  36  per  cent,  through  loss  in  heat 
energy  at  the  burners.  The  remainder,  or  about  47  per 
cent.,  represents  the  percentage  of  the  volume  from  which 
the  consumer  derives  full  benefit  in  heat  units  or  energy. 
In  other  words,  in  the  average  gas  bill  of  any  amount — for 
instance,  in  a  bill  for  100,000  cu.  ft.  of  gas  for  one  month 
only  the  number  of  heat  units  in  47,000  cu.  ft.  of  gas  are 
actually  used  while  the  amount  of  leakage  is  16,000  cu.  ft. 

472 


DOMESTIC         CONSUMPTION         OF         GAS 

The  yellow  flame  in  a  stove  burner  is  a  waste  of  gas  and 
helps  to  increase  the  gas  bills.  There  is  less  heat  units  in  a 
yellow  than  in  a  blue  flame.  All  flames  should  burn  with 
a  blue  color  tinged  with  red. 

In  cooking  it  is  not  necessary  to  leave  a  burner  turned 
on  full. head  with  the  flames  burning  around  the  sides  of  a 
kettle  or  spider.  It  is  a  waste  of  gas.  When  through  cooking 
turn  off  the  gas. 

Likewise  with  heating  stoves,  do  not  open  the  doors  and 
windows  w^hen  the  temperature  of  the  room  becomes  too 
high.    Turn  down  the  gas  instead. 

The  consumer  should  consider  the  use  of  gas  the  same 
as  he  would  the  use  of  coal.  If  he  were  obliged  to  purchase 
gas  in  quantities  the  same  as  he  would  purchase  coal  or  other 
fuel,  and  could  from  time  to  time  watch  the  diminishing 
supply,  he  would  naturally  be  more  economical  in  its  use 
and  less  likely  to  think  his  gas  bills  too  high. 

Is  it  at  all  surprising  that  the  consumer  should  complain? 
Of  course  the  complaint  is  made  to  the  gas  company  as  they 
are  the  only  ones  to  benefit  financially  from  the  sale  of  the 
gas,  but  what  control  has  the  gas  company  over  the  waste 
of  gas  on  the  consumers  premises?  They  have  no  more  con- 
trol over  the  use  of  gas  in  one's  home  than  the  grocer  has 
over  the  groceries  he  sells  you.  One  may  purchase  a  peck  of 
potatoes  and  w^aste  one  half  in  the  paring  and  of  course 
never  think  of  complaining  to  the  grocer. 

It  would  be  far  better  for  the  gas  company  were  the 
consumers  to  use  the  gas  with  reasonable  care  and  economy. 
It  would  lessen  the  individual  gas  bills,  create  personal 
w^orkers  for  new  consumers  and  naturally  increase  the  sale 
of  gas  by  the  increased  number  of  consumers. 

Again,  if  all  leakage  in  the  house  piping  were  stopped 
it  would  remove  a  very  expensive  liability  due  to  explosion 
caused  by  gas  from  leaks  in  house  piping.     Wlienever  an 

473 


DOMESTIC         CONSUMPTION         OF         GAS 

explosion  occurs  it  invariably  means  a  law  suit  and  often 
takes  years  for  the  courts  to  determine  whether  the  leak 
was  on  the  outside  or  the  inside  of  the  house. 

If  the  consumer  would  obtain  80  to  90  per  cent,  efficiency 
from  the  gas  purchased  through  the  meter,  he  would  have 
little  reason  to  complain  of  high  gas  bills  and  if  practiced 
generally  by  gas  consumers  it  would  be  one  great  step  to- 
ward the  conserv^ation  of  our  natural  gas  resources. 

Proper  Color  of  Flame  in  Stove  Burners — The  proper 
color  of  the  flame  in  burners  should  be  blue  tinged  with  red. 

It  is  quite  common  for  the  burners  and  mixers  to  become 
dirty  when  the  gas  will  not  properly  mix  with  air.  This 
condition  causes  a  yellow  flame. 

When  this  condition  exists  the  burners  and  mixers 
should  be  taken  apart  and  washed  clean  with  hot  soap  and 
water,  and  the  mixer  should  be  readjusted  till  the  proper 
color  of  flame  is  obtained. 


Fig.  203 


474 


DOMESTIC         CONSUMPTION         OF         GAS 


Fig.  204 — A  low  flame  requires 
more  time  to  boil  water  but  by  raising 
burner,  a  most  economical  fire  can  be 
maintained.     Pressure  ^  9  ounce. 


Fig.  21).', 


Fig.  205  —The  proper  size  flame  for 
the  average  gas  range.  Pressure  2 
ounces.     Height  of  flame,  4  inches. 


Fig.  205 


Fig.  206 — Shows  gas  being  wasted. 
Pressure  5  ounces.  Height  of  flame 
103/2  inches  (measured  without  kettle 
over  stove  hole). 


Fig.   206 

Gas  Range  Burner  Tests — The  following  tests  were 
made  on  a  modern  gas  range  burner  by  boiling  eight  pounds  of 
water  with  different  color  flames  or  mixer  adjustments 
and  at  difTerent  pressures.  Temperature  of  water  at  start 
of  each  test  was  70°  fahr.  and  at  completion  of  test  206° 
fahr.  or  boiling  point.  Pressures  were  taken  at  the  burner. 
With  yellow  flame — 


Test 
No. 

Height  of  flame 
at  center 
of  burner. 

Pressure 
in  oz. 

Time 
required. 

Cubic  feet 
of  gas 
burned. 

1 
2 
3 
4 

4          inches 
lOH 

2 
3 
4 
5 

20     min. 
17H     " 
20 
21 

3.0 
3.2 
4.3 

5. 

475 


DOMESTIC       CONSUMPTION       OF       GAS 


With  blue  flame — 


Test 

No. 

Height  of  flame 
at  center 
of  burner. 

Pressure 
in  oz. 

Time 
required. 

Cubic  feet 
of  gas 

5 
6 
7 
8 

4      inches 
63^2        " 
83^       " 
lOM        " 

2 
3 
4 
5 

193^  min. 
163^^     " 
15 
14 

2.8 
3. 
3.1 
3.4 

From  the  foregoing  tests  it  is  shown  that  the  most 
economical  use  of  natural  gas  is  with  the  2-ounce  pressure 
and  the  blue  flame. 

Lights — Often  the  mixer  and  the  screen  in  the  burner 
will  become  clogged  with  dust.  By  removing  the  mantle 
the  dust  can  be  blown  out  with  one's  breath.  The  screen  in 
the  cap  directly  under  the  mantle  can  be  removed  or  blown 
out.  Clean  the  pin  hole  through  which  the  gas  enters  the 
mixer.  A  hat  pin  will  be  found  most  convenient  for  this. 
Do  not  increase  the  size  of  the  hole  unless  the  amount  of 
gas  is  too  small  to  give  a  full  sized  blue  flame. 

Summary  of  House  Heating  Furnace  Tests — The  fol- 
lowing table,  showing  the  result  of  tests  made  by  Samuel  S. 
Wyer  for  the  Ohio  Fuel  Supply  Company  in  1912,  gives  a 
summary  of  experiments  made  on  furnaces  which  were  in  no 
way  specially  prepared  for  the  tests,  and  the  results  repre- 
sent actual  operating  conditions  in  a  home.  The  figures, 
however,  do  not  consider  the  cost  of  handling  ashes,  damage 
to  home  furnishings  from  coal  soot,  labor  in  looking  after 
a  solid  fuel  furnace  and  the  fact  that  with  gas  the  fuel  con- 
sumption can  be  stopped  instantly,  whereas  with  solid  fuel 
the  hre  must  be  allowed  to  burn  out. 


476 


DOMESTIC         CONSUMPTION 


O  F 


GAS 


Fuel  and 
Furnace 


Natural  Gas,  spe- 
cial gas  furnace. 

Natural  Gas,  ordi- 
nary natural  gas 

furnace 

furnace  fitted 
with  burner  No. 

2,  3  8-inch  mixers 
Natural    gas,    coal 

furnace  fitted 
with  burner  No. 

3,  ^-inch  mixers 

Coke,  coal  furnace. 
19-inch  fire  pot  . 

Hocking  Nut  Coal, 
coal  furnace,  19- 
inch  fire-pot.  .  .  . 

Pocahontas  Nut 
Coal,  coal  fur- 
nace, 19-  inch 
fire-pot 


Cost  of 
Fuel 
De- 
livered 


Per  Cu. 
Ft. 

SO.  30 
.30 
.30 

.30 

Per  Ton 

So.  50 
3.25 

4.50 


Heat 

Units 

in  Fuel 


Per  Cu. 
Ft. 

980 


980 


980 


Heat 

Units 

from 

$1  Worth 

of  Fuel 


FuelCon- 
sumption 
per  Hour 


980 
Per  Lb 


2,023,000 


1,109,000 


924,000 


967,000 
13,500         867,000 


12.000 


14,000 


Cu.  Ft. 


83 


156 


Temi).  of 

Smoke 
deg.  fahr. 


100 


100 


987,000 


1,250,000 


220 

482 
467 

602 
over  1000 
over  1000 

Wer  1000 


Suggestions  for  Domestic  Consumers — Do  not  look  for 
a  leak  with  a  lighted  match  or  candle.  Upon  first  discovery 
of  a  leak  open  all  doors  and  windows. 

A  leak  in  house  piping  can  be  temporarily  stopped  by 
covering  the  opening  with  soap  and  a  bandage.  If  this  is 
resorted  to  permanent  repairs  should  be  made  as  quickly  as 
possible. 

Sweating  on  walls  in  a  residence  is  caused  by  bad  drafts, 
open  top  of  stove  or  lack  of  chimney  connection.  It  is  more 
apt  to  occur  in  winter  when  the  houses  are  kept  closed. 

There  is  about  ten  per  cent  more  moisture  in  burnt 
fumes  from  manufactured  gas  than  from  natural  gas 


477 


DOMESTIC         CONSUMPTION         OF         GAS 


Keep  the  damper  in  the  stove  pipe  partially  closed 
according  to  the  amount  of  lire  in  the  stove.  Natural  gas 
does  not  require  a  great  amount  of  draft,  but  what  little  it 
does  require  must  be  perfect. 

Do  not  use  rub- 
ber tubing  for  con- 
necting gas  to  heat- 
ing stoves,  hot  plates 
or  cook  stoves,  and 
for  light  connections 
it  is  allowable  only 
with  perfect  connec- 
tions at  the  burner 
and  the  hose  cock. 
When  rubber  tubing 
is  used  for  lights  use 
the  valve  at  the  gas 
fixture.  Flexible  me- 
tallic tubing  is  safer 
than  rubber  tubing. 
A  great  many  as- 
phyxiations  and  fires 
have  been  directly 
accounted  for  by  rub- 
ber hose  connections. 
Heating  or  cook 
stoves  should  not  be 
used  without  a  chim- 
ney connection  to 
carrv   off  the    burnt 


Fig.  .?'/?— .A V  EXPLOSIOX  ()/■'  AM  7  I'K.XL 
IX  A    PRIVATE  HOME  IXDIREl  I  lA 
DUE  TO  USIXG  RUBBER  TUBIXG 
FOR  STOVE  COXXECTIOXS 


gases. 
The    effect    of    burnt    gases   on   the   room   itself   is   a 
condensation  of  the  moisture  on  the  waUs  or  windows,  often 
causing  the  paper  to  drop  from  the  walls. 

Gas  stoves  should  be  placed  at  a  safe  distance  from  the 
wall,  with  a  sheet  of  metal  underneath. 

478 


DOMESTIC         CONSUMPTION         OF         GAS 

Domestic  consumers  should  learn  to  read  their  own  meter 
and  thus  be  able  to  verify  the  correctness  of  their  monthly 
gas  bill.  This  will  also  give  an  apportunity  of  determining 
how  much  gas  any  particular  stove  w^ill  burn  an  hour. 

Cooking  and  Heating  with  Natural  Gas  When  Pressure 
is  Low  or  a  Shortage  of  Gas  Exists — The  majority  of  con- 
sumers consider  that  when  the  gas  pressure  is  low  they  are 
being  cheated  by  the  gas  company  and  that  a  refund  should 
be  given.  Actually,  however,  the  gas  company  is  the  loser. 
If  it  had  more  gas  to  sell,  it  would  be  receiving  greater  returns 
during  the  period  of  shortage.  No  gas  company  desires  to 
have  a  shortage  and  invariably  does  everything  in  its  power 
to  forestall  anything  of  this  nature.  The  efforts  put  forth  by 
gas  companies  in  this  direction  are  seldom  known  and  rarely 
appreciated  by  the  consumer.  A  shortage  has  never  taken 
place  but  that  the  gas  company  could  have  sold  more  gas 
during  the  period  than  it  actually  had  to  sell. 

The  consumer  may  state  that  "the  gas  is  low"  and  that 
the  gas  obtained  by  him  is  "no  good"  and  has  air  in  it.  The 
first  statement  is  justifiable  in  case  of  a  shortage,  but  the 
latter  two  are  unreasonable  though  they  must  be  answered 
with  all  due  politeness  and  consideration. 

The  writer  has  never  known  of  an  instance  where  air  has 
been  "pumped"  into  a  gas  line,  either  at  high  or  low  pressure, 
to  increase  the  meter  bills.  The  fact  that  it  is  a  most  danger- 
ous practice  is  too  well  known  to  natural  gas  men. 

Without  question,  the  consumer  is  getting  the  same 
quality  of  gas,  during  the  shortage,  as  when  the  pressure  is 
normal. 

It  has  been  proven  that  with  low  pressure  during  a  gas 
shortage  (as,  for  instance,  one  or  two  ounces)  more  actual 
benefit  is  received  by  the  consumer  per  cubic  foot  of  gas  than 
when  the  pressure  is  high  or  normal. 


479 


DOMESTIC         CONSUMPTION         OF         GAS 

When  the  fire  in  a  cook  stove  actually  blows  or  roars, 
it  is  a  true  indication  that  a  full  benefit  of  the  heat  units  in 
the  gas  is  not  being  taken  advantage  of  and  considerable 
waste  exists. 

In  a  heating  stove  practically  the  same  number  of  heat 
units  per  cubic  foot  of  gas  are  obtained  when  the  pressure  is 
low  as  when  the  pressure  is  high  or  normal. 

The  consumer  can  state  honestly  that  he  is  not  getting 
enough  gas  for  his  wants,  but  as  to  the  quality  of  the  gas  being 
different  or  poor,  this  is  a  mistaken  idea. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  consumer  that  during 
exceptionally  cold  weather,  when  shortages  are  likely  to  take 
place,  natural  gas  is  a  luxury  given  us  by  nature  and  is  not 
simply  a  case  of  "put  on  more  coal"  to  increase  the  supply. 

Comparison  of  Domestic  Meter  Bills  by  the  Consumer — 

Distributing  companies  commonly  receive  complaints  from 
patrons  that  their  friends,  neighbors  or  acquaintances  with 
smaller  homes,  fewer  people  in  the  family,  and  with  extrava- 
gant appliances,  have  smaller  bills. 

First,  make  sure  that  the  meter  is  accurate,  either  by 
looking  up  the  record  and  learning  that  the  meter  in  question 
has  lately  been  tested,  or  by  making  a  special  test.  Then 
carefully  and  politely  take  up  the  comparison  of  grocery  or 
other  household  bills.  It  wih  be  found  that  they  will  not  foot 
up  the  same.  The  number  of  rooms  in  a  house  has  as  little  to 
do  with  the  gas  bill  as  the  number  of  people  in  the  family  has 
to  do  with  the  grocery  bill.  No  two  families  are  alike  with 
regard  to  their  home  wants  and  requirements. 

It  might  be  added  that  it  is  just  as  reasonable  for  the  gas 
man  to  sell  gas  by  the  stove  or  flat  rate  as  it  is  for  the  grocery 
man  to  contract  to  supply  groceries  for  a  home  by  the  number 
of  persons  in  it. 

480 


DOMESTIC         CONSUMPTION         OF         GAS 

Water  Condensation  from  Burnt  Gases  ( By  Professor 
Ilau'ort/i)  "Wlien  burned,  one  volume  of  methane  (the  main 
constituent  of  natural  gas)  unites  with  two  volumes  of  oxygen, 
which  is  equivalent  to  ten  volumes  of  air. 

The  products  of  combustion  are  two  volumes  of  water 
vapor  and  one  volume  of  carbon  dioxide.  The  production  of 
water  vapor  becomes  apparent  in  the  combustion  of  natural 
gas,  the  water  vapor  condensing  and  collecting  on  any  cold 
object  near  the  burning  gas.  This  gives  rise  to  the  popular 
belief  that  the  gas  as  it  comes  in  the  pipes  is  wet  or  loaded 
with  water.  A  simple  calculation  will  show  us  the  remark- 
ably large  amount  of  water  produced  in  the  burning  of  1000 
cubic  feet  of  methane. 

Each  1000  cubic  feet  of  methane  produces  on  combustion 
twice  its  own  volume  or  2000  cubic  feet  of  water  vapor.  This 
weighs  100.13  lb.  and  is  equal  to  approximately  12  U.  S. 
gallons  of  liquid  water.  Now  if  we  have  a  natural  gas  con- 
taining ninety-live  per  cent,  of  pure  methane,  it  would  give 
ninety-five  per  cent,  as  much  water  per  1000  cubic  feet,  that 
is  95  lb.  or  11.4  gallons. 

This  shows  that  the  production  of  a  large  quantity  of 
water  is  an  inevitable  accompaniment  of  the  combustion  of 
natural  gas,  and  it  is  no  evidence  of  a  good  or  a  bad  quaHty 
of  gas  itself,  excepting  that  the  quantity  of  water  thus  pro- 
duced increases  as  the  percentage  of  methane  in  the  gas  in- 
creases. It  therefore  should  be  considered  a  sign  of  good 
quality  instead  of  bad.  The  heat  of  combustion  of  methane 
is  100-3  B.  t.  u.  per  cubic  foot  of  gas." 

Incandescent  Light  Mantles — The  original  research  work 
in  the  invention  of  the  incandescent  light  mantle  was  begun 
by  Carl  Auer  von  Welsbach  in  1880  at  the  Bunson  Labora- 
tory at  the  University  of  Heidelburg. 

481 


DOMESTIC 


CONSUMPTION 


O  F 


GAS 


Fig.  208— A    GAS  OFFICE   WINDOW  DISPLAY 
Depicting  the  "Before"  and  "After"  by  the  Introduction  of  Natural  Gas. 

Not  until  1890  did  this  young  man  bring  the  invention 
to  a  successful  standard.  The  preparation  consisted  of  1  per 
cent,  cerium  and  99  per  cent,  thorium.  The  cerium  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  high  luminous  eifect. 

Artificial  fibre,  cotton,  and  ramie  thread  are  used  to 
support  the  coating  of  cerium  and  thorium.  The  cotton  and 
ramie  thread  are  hollow  while  the  artificial  fibre  is  like  a  solid 
rod.  The  shrinkage  of  mantles  is  generally  due  to  the  cotton 
or  ramie  thread  collapsing  after  burning. 

Before  using,  the  mantles  must  be  burnt  off,  leaving  the 
"ash"  of  the  original  make-up,  this  ash  being  the  real  light 
producer. 


482 


PART    IIITEKX 

Industrial  Consumption  of  Gas 

COMPARATIVE  FUEL  VALUE— FACTS  AND 
FIGURES  ABOUT  NATURAL  GAS  USED  IN 
VARIOUS  INDUSTRIES  —  BOILER  INSTALLA- 
TION (Section)-~GAS  ENGINE  {Seclio n)~FOWER 
(Section). 

Comparative  Fuel  Value  of  Coal,  Oil  and  Natural  Gas — 

Good  practice,  with  boilers  of  proper  construction  and  pro- 
portioned to  the  work : 

1  lb.  of  coal  will  evaporate  9  lb.  of  water  from  and  at  212 
deg.  fahr. 

1  lb.  of  oil  will  evaporate  13  lb.  of  water  from  and  at  212 
deg.  fahr. 

lib.  of  natural  gas  will  evaporate  15  lb.  of  water  from  and 
at  212  deg.  fahr. 

1  lb.  of  coal  will  equal  12  cu.  ft.  of  natural  gas. 

1  ton  of  coal  (2000  lb.)  will  equal  24,000  cu.  ft.  of  natural 
gas. 

1  lb.  of  oil  will  equal  17  cu.  ft.  of  natural  gas. 

1  bbl.  (42  gal.)  will  equal  5,000  cu.  ft.  of  natural  gas. 

5  bbl.  (42  gal.)  will  equal  1  ton  of  good  coal. 

1  cu.  ft.  of  natural  gas  will  evaporate  0.75  lb.  of  water. 

1  cu.  ft.  of  natural  gas  contains  990  B.  t.  u.  gross. 

1000  cu.  ft.  of  natural  gas  contains  990,000  B.  t.  u. 

1  ton  of  coal  contains  28,000,000  B.  t.  u. 

1  bbl.  of  oil  contains  5,600,000  B.  t.  u. 

1  bbl.  of  oil  41  deg.  gravity,  weight  287.5,  U.S.  bbl.. 
contains  5.615  cu.  ft. 

1  cu.  ft.  of  water  at  39.8  deg.  fahr.  at  30  inches  of  mer- 
cury, atmospheric  pressure,  weighs  62.42  lb. 

483 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

Under  fair  conditions  a  100  h.  p.  boiler  will  use  about 
4000  lb.  of  R.  M.  bituminous  coal  in  ten  hours. 

In  the  foregoing  values  only  good  quality  coal,  gas  and 
oil  are  considered.  Natural  gas  varies  greatly  in  B.  t.  u. 
tests  from  748  B.  t.  u.  to  1100  B.  t.  u.  990  is  a  good  average 
quality. 

The  quality  of  coal  with  reference  to  B.  t.  u.  varies 
greatly  in  different  mines  and  commonly  in  the  same  mine. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  the  use  of  coal  there  is 
always  a  waste  of  fuel  in  starting  the  fire  under  a  boiler  and 
after  the  work  is  finished.  With  gas  or  oil  for  fuel,  less  time 
is  required  in  starting  the  fire,  and  after  the  work  is  completed 
the  fire  can  be  put  out  immediately. 

Facts  and  Figures  about  Natural  Gas  as  Used  in  Various 

Industries. 

Electricity — Cost  of  installation  per  h.  p.  of  an  electric 
plant,  in  which  electricity  is  developed  by  steam — .S60  to  $70 
per  h.  p.  and  where  gas  engine  is  used  .$80  per  h.  p. 

The  amount  of  gas  required  in  making  electricity  with 
steam  mstdllation,  using  gas  for  fuel,  is  40  cu.  ft.  per  kilowatt 
hour.  With  a  gas  engine  the  amount  of  gas  required  for 
making  electricity  is  about  18  cu.  ft.  per  kilowatt  hour. 

Cement — The  amount  of  gas  required  to  make  one 
barrel  of  cement,  in  plants  of  more  than  1000  barrels  daily 
capacity,  is  3000  cu.  ft.  For  the  burning  only  of  one  barrel 
of  cement  in  kilns,  1750  cu.  ft.  of  gas  is  required. 

Smelter — The  amount  of  gas  required  in  a  smelter  to 
burn  one  block  of  640  retorts  for  twenty-four  hours  is  between 
600,000  and  700,000  cu.  ft.  of  gas,  dependent  on  the  kind  of 
ore  smelted.  In  plants  of  three  blocks  or  more,  it  is  generally 
figured  1,000,000  cu.  ft.  of  gas  is  required  for  each  block, 
which  figures  include  roasting,  pottery,  and  boiler  use. 

484 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

Brick — The    amount    of   gas    required    in    making    one 
thousand  brick  is  as  follows : 
For  burning 12,000  cu.  ft. 

For  drying 1,700  cu.  ft. 

For  steam 1,900  cu.  ft. 

Total 15,600  cu.  ft. 

Carbon  Black — The  manufacture  of  carbon  black  from 
natural  gas  has  become  an  extensive  industry  through  the 
gas  fields  of  West  Virginia.  Invariably  the  factories  are 
located  in  gas  fields  in  remote  sections  and  away  from  anv 
thickly  settled  districts  or  cities.  While  the  use  of  natural 
gas  for  this  purpose  has  been  criticised  on  account  of  the 
small  financial  return  per  thousand  cu.  ft.  of  gas,  considera- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  fact  that  if  the  same  gas  were  piped 
to  a  market  and  a  larger  gross  income  received  the  actual 
profit  would  not  be  much  different  from  that  obtained  from 
making  carbon  black. 

It  takes  about  fifteen  hundred  cubic  feet  of  gas  to  make 
one  pound  of  carbon  black,  and  the  factories  usually  operate 
twenty-four  hours  a  day. 

Generally  a  carbon  black  factory  consists  of  a  row  of 
low,  sheet  iron  buildings  in  which  are  long  rows  of  troughs. 
Under  these  troughs  the  gas  is  burned  through  common  jet 
burners,  the  combustion  taking  place  with  an  insufficient 
supply  of  air,  resulting  in  a  heavy  deposit  of  unconsumed 
carbon,  or  soot,  on  the  under  side  of  the  troughs.  This  soot, 
or  carbon  black,  is  then  scraped  off  and  packed  in  twelve- 
and-one-half  pound  bags,  which  in  turn  are  barreled  for 
shipment. 

In  this  process  no  use  is  made  of  the  heat  energy  of  the 
gas,  other  than  that  required  to  separate  the  carbon  from  the 
hydrogen  and  other  constituents,  and  it  is  therefore  very 
wasteful. 

485 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

BOILER  BURNER  INSTALLATION  (Section) 

Boiler  Burners  for  Natural  Gas — The  secret  of  success  in 
the  use  of  gas  burners  under  boilers  is  to  thoroughly  mix  the 
proper  amount  of  air  and  gas  before  these  factors  reach  the 
point  of  ignition. 

Complete  combustion  requires  the  union,  under  high 
temperature,  of  one  atom  of  carbon  to  two  atoms  of  oxygen. 
The  combustion  of  one  pound  of  carbon,  when  supplied  and 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  above  amount  of  oxygen,  will 
produce  14,500  B.  t.  u.;  while  one  pound  of  carbon,  when 
supplied  with  half  the  above  amount  of  oxygen,  will  produce 
only  about  4500  B.  t.  u.  In  the  first  case  the  resulting  pro- 
duct of  combustion  is  carbon  dioxide,  CO2,  and  in  the 
second,  carbon  monoxide,  CO. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  gas  and  oxygen  be 
thoroughly  mixed  after  they  have  been  brought  together, 
as  the  completeness  of  combustion  obtained  will  depend 
upon  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been  mixed.  A  perfect 
mixture  can  be  obtained  only  by  putting  gas  and  oxygen  in 
violent  agitation  before  reaching  the  combustion  chamber, 
for  even  though  the  proper  proportion  of  oxygen  be  present, 
it  may  not  have  a  chance  to  reach  all  of  the  carbon  atoms  to 
unite  with  them  before  the  gases  pass  out  of  the  combustion 
chamber  and  become  chilled  below  the  temperature  of 
ignition.  For  this  reason  it  is  also  necessary  to  supply  more 
air  than  is  theoretically  required  for  complete  combustion. 

Temperature  of  Natural  Gas  Combustion — Natural  Gas 
combustion,  when  supplied  with  the  exact  amount  of  air 
necessary  for  complete  combustion,  should  burn  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  4200  deg.  fahr.  On  account  of  the  excess 
of  air  that  is  necessary  for  dilution,  however,  the  actual 
temperature  of  combustion  is  about  2200  deg.  fahr.  It  is 
not  always  desirable  to  use  an  extremely  high  temperature, 
as  in  some  cases  it  would  injure  the  products  of  the  furnace 

486 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 


Fig.  209— NATURAL  GAS  INSTALLATION  UNDER   WATER   TUBE 
BOILERS 


in  which  it  is  being  used.  This  would  apply  to  the  burning 
of  brick  or  any  other  material  which  is  placed  in  a  kiln,  and 
tired  after  the  setting  is  completed.  For  this  purpose  the 
temperature  should  be  very  low  when  started,  and  gradually 
increased  as  the  kiln  is  heated.  When  combustion  of  gas 
takes  place,  much  moisture  is  liberated  in  the  form  of  vapor, 
which  will  be  condensed  on  the  surface  of  any  object  which 
is  at  a  low  temperature  and  will  be  absorbed  by  any  object 
which  will  retain  moisture.  This  is  objectionable  for  some 
purposes. 

487 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 


X  « 


CO     Q 


^5 


488 


NDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 


Installation  of  Natural  Gas  Burners  Under  Boilers- 
While  there  can  be  a  great  many  different  methods  employed 
in  instaUing  natural  gas  burners  under  boilers,  they  all  vary 
but  slic^htlv  from  each  other.     In  covering  this  subject,  we 


489 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

are  making  some  general  suggestions  as  adopted  by  gas 
burner  experts. 

Cover  the  entire  grate  surface  (or  bottom  of  furnace  if 
grates  are  not  used)  with  lire  brick  or  any  material  that  will 
stand  a  high  temperature,  for  the  purpose  of  excluding  all 
air  and  to  protect  the  grates  from  the  heat  of  the  furnace. 

Primarily  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  greatest 
success  with  natural  gas  under  boilers  is  to  burn  all  the 
combustible  with  the  proper  mixture  of  air. 

Place  the  burners  under  the  fire  doors  or  through  holes 
cut  in  the  front  of  the  furnace  as  shown  in  cuts.  If  burners 
are  placed  through  the  doors,  the  opening  around  the  burners 
should  be  built  up  with  brick  and  mortar.  The  burners 
should  not  extend  beyond  this  brick  wall. 

The  distance  from  the  end  of  the  burners  to  the  checker- 
wall  will  vary  under  different  conditions.  Checker-walls 
should  be  nine  inches  thick,  and  where  a  three-foot  or  higher 
wall  is  required  the  thickness  should  be  increased  at  the 
bottom  and  tapered  off  towards  the  top.  If  the  wall  is  not 
increased  in  thickness  at  the  bottom,  it  will  not  be  apt  to 
stand  long  where  it  is  three  feet  high  or  over.  A  space  of  one 
or  two  inches  should  always  be  left  at  each  end  of  the  wall 
where  it  joins  the  side  wall  to  the  furnace. 

These  two  spaces  are  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  expan- 
sion and  contraction,  which  would  be  liable  to  throw  the  wall 
down  unless  provided  for  as  above  specified. 

The  height  of  the  wall  will  depend  upon  the  construction 
of  the  furnace,  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  being  used,  and  the 
amount  of  gas  to  be  consumed.  If  it  is  to  be  used  in  a  boiler 
furnace  and  it  is  desired  to  work  the  boiler  at  or  above  its 
rating,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  wall  is  not  built  up  too 
close  to  the  boiler,  as  the  heat  generated  will  be  intense  if 
confined  too  much  in  front  of  the  furnace  by  reason  of  the 
checker-wall  being  built  too  high  or  the  openings  too  small. 

490 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

The  object  of  the  checker-wall  is  to  retard  slightly  the 
velocity  of  the  burning  gas  in  order  to  obtain  greater  benefit 
where  needed,  rather  than  to  have  the  burning  gas  pass 
quickly  into  the  hood  and  stack,  spreading  the  effects  of 
the  heat  en  route. 

Should  the  work  the  boiler  is  required  to  do  be  light,  and 
at  no  time  exceed  the  rating  of  the  boiler,  the  checker-wall 
can  be  built  with  smaller  openings  and  closer  to  the  boiler 
with  better  results.  In  case  the  draft  is  very  poor  and  not 
sufficient  for  the  amount  of  work  being  done,  a  second 
checker-wall,  placed  about  one  foot  back  of  the  first,  will 
give  better  results.  If  the  second  wall  is  used,  some  air 
should  be  admitted  from  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  between 
the  two  checker-walls. 

In  a  furnace  covered  by  an  arch  and  entirely  surrounded 
with  tire-brick,  a  small  amount  of  checker- wall  will  be  suffi- 
cient. In  many  cases  none  is  required,  as  the  heat  generated 
will  be  all  the  furnace  will  stand  without  any  checker-wall. 

As  all  furnaces  are  not  alike,  it  is  impossible  to  give 
instructions  that  will  cover  every  case.  Therefore,  any  wall 
or  combination  of  walls  that  wall  giv^e  the  best  results  is  the 
proper  thing  to  use  in  that  particular  case. 

In  a  boiler  with  a  horizontal  baffle,  where  the  gases  pass 
to  the  rear  of  the  furnace,  the  checker-wall  should  be  about 
thirty  inches  from  the  front  wall  of  the  furnace.  In  selecting 
the  proper  size  header  for  a  boiler  setting,  we  would  suggest 
the  following  formula  by  Gwynn: 

A   =    v'B    X   C 

A  =  Diameter  of  pipe  in  inches. 

B  =  Area  of  gas  connection  to  burner. 

C  =  Number  of  burners  used. 

Example — It  is  proposed  to  install  ten  live-inch  gas 
burners  with  one-and-one-half-inch  gas  connections;  what 
size  header  would  be  required?  A  one-and-one-half-inch  gas 
pipe  equals  2.036  in  area.    As  ten  burners  are  to  be  fed  from 

491 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

this  header,  the  area  required  would  be  the  area  of  gas 
connection  to  burner,  multipHed  by  the  number  of  burners 
to  be  used.  In  applying  these  figures  to  the  above  formula, 
the  result  would  be  about  a  five-inch  pipe,  which  would  be 
the  smallest  size  pipe  used  in  this  case. 

A  valve  should  be  placed  in  the  header  at  the  side  of  the 
boiler  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  volume  of  gas  sup- 
plied to  all  burners  at  one  time. 

Continue  away  from  header  with  a  gas  line  of  the  same 
size.  If  this  line  extends  more  than  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  a 
larger  size  should  be  used,  as  the  gas  pressure  will  decrease 
very  rapidly  in  a  long  line,  especially  if  there  are  many 
turns. 

Use  of  Steam  or  Compressed  Air  in  Boiler  Burner  In- 
stallations— In  very  few  cases  the  use  of  steam  in  connection 
with  boiler  burners  is  a  benefit.  In  all  of  such  cases  some  of 
the  following  conditions  will  be  present :  insufficient  draft  to 
carry  away  the  products  of  combustion;  insufficient  burner 
capacity;  insufficient  boiler  or  furnace  capacity  to  do  the 
w^ork  required;  insufficient  gas  pressure  at  the  burner; 
installations  not  properly  made;  burners  not  operated  in 
the  proper  manner.  Any  or  all  of  these  conditions  might 
be  present  at  the  same  time.  When  steam  is  used  it  is  only 
for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  proper  mixture  between  the 
gas  and  air  when  this  cannot  be  done  in  any  other  manner. 
This  is  accomplished  by  the  steam  entering  the  mixing 
chamber  under  the  same  pressure  through  several  very 
small  jets  with  a  spiral  or  rotary  motion  and  causing  a  partial 
vacuum  in  the  air  tube,  which,  in  turn,  causes  the  air  to  flow 
into  the  burner  and  become  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  gas 
before  reaching  the  point  of  ignition.  Compressed  air  may 
be  used  for  this  purpose  with  much  better  results,  as  the  only 
loss  will  be  the  power  required  to  compress  the  air. 

492 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 


— -m.s  i 

X///////////////A 

■'^'.  M  1 

K4^ 

"  i% 

m  i  ^ 

-f  ^ 

^ '  ' 

493 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 


FITTINGS    ON    GAS   MAIN 


Symbol 

C-1     5  12-inch  Cast  Iron  Flanged 

Tees,  faced  and  drilled. 
C-2     2  10-inch  Cast  Iron  Flanged 

Tees,  faced  and  drilled. 
C-3     3  12-inch  Cast  Iron  Flanged 

Ells,  faced  and  drilled. 
C-4     2  10-inch  Cast  Iron  Flanged 

Ells,  faced  and  drilled. 
C-5     3  10-inch  Cast  Iron  Flanged 

Gate  Valves. 
C-6     12  12-inch  Cast  Iron  Flanges 

faced  and  drilled. 
C-7     6  5-inch  Cast  Iron  Flanges, 

faced    and    drilled     (5-inch 

pipe   tap,   outside   diameter 

19  inches). 
C-8     1  10-inch  Cast  Iron  Flange, 

faced    and    drilled    (10-inch 

pipe  tap,   outside   diameter 

19  inches). 


Symbol 

C-9    5  10-inch  Cast  Iron  Flanges, 

faced   and   drilled,    (10-inch 

pipe  tap,   outside  diameter 

16  inches). 
C-10  3  12-inch  Wrought  Iron 

Pipes   (threaded),   about  22 

feet  4  inches  long. 
C-11  2  12-inch  Wrought    Iron 

pipes    (threaded),    about    3 

feet  5  inches  long. 
C-12  1  12-inch  Wrought  Iron 

Nipple,  (threaded),  about  10 

inches  long. 
C-13  1  10-inch   Wrought  Iron 

Nipple  (threaded). 
C-14  1  10-inch   Wrought    Iron 

Nipple. 
C-15  1  10-inch  Wrought    Iron 

Pipe,     about     3     feet     3% 

inches  long. 


BILL  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  ONE  BOILER 


Symbol 

A-1     15  5-inch  Gas  Burners. 

A-2       1  5- inch  Wrought   Iron 

Header. 
A-3       1  5-inch  Cast  Iron  Cap. 
A-4       1  5-inch  Cast  Iron  Ell. 
A-5       1  5-inch   Cast    Iron   Gate 

Valve. 
A-6     1  5-inch  Wrought  Iron  Long 

Nipple,  12  inches  long. 
A-7     1  5-inch  Wrought  Iron  Pipe 

(threaded),  about  3  feet  10 

inches  long. 
A-8     15    l3<4-inch    Wrought    Iron 

Long  Nipples,  6  inches  long. 
A-9     9    iK-inch    Wrought    Iron 

Long  Nipples,  8  inches  long. 
A-10  12    114-inch    Wrought    Iron 


Symbol 

A-11  15  l3/i-inch  Cast  Iron  Stop 
Cocks. 

A-12  15  l}4-inch  Malleable  Iron 

Dart  Unions. 
A-13  9  l3<4-inch  Nipples,  6  inches 

long. 

B-1 


Long    Nipples, 
long. 


242    9-inch    Fire    Brick,    to 

cover  grates.      (Use  second 

quality.) 
B-2    232  9-inch  Fire  Bricks,   for 

checker    wall.       (Use    Ben- 

ezet. ) 
B-3    10  9x43  2xl34-inch  Fire  Brick 

Splits,  for  filling  doers, 
inches     B-4    1  Sack  Fire  Clay. 


494 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION         OF        GAS 


The  use  of  steam  in  a  gas-lired  luriiace  is  always  attended 
with  a  loss,  as  the  heat  absorbed  by  the  reduction  of  one 
pound  of  steam  to  hydrogen  and    oxygen  is  much    greater 


495 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

in  amount  than  the  heat  generated  by  the  union  with  the 
carbon  of  oxygen  thus  set  free.  This  loss  may  be  partially 
recovered  if  the  furnace  is  kept  at  the  proper  temperature  to 
quickly  reduce  the  steam  to  hydrogen,  which  will  be  con- 
sumed with  the  gas. 

Draft — In  lighting  a  furnace  which  has  been  closed  down, 
care  should  be  used  to  see  that  the  damper  is  open  and  that 
there  is  enough  draft  to  carry  away  the  products  of  com- 
bustion; otherwise,  the  flame  will  soon  be  extinguished  and 
the  escaping  gas  may  cause  trouble  if  re-ignited.  Any  serious 
obstruction  to  the  draft  while  boiler  or  furnace  is  in  operation 
might  have  the  same  effect. 

A  very  simple  method  of  increasing  the  economy  of  the 
burning  of  gas  under  a  boiler,  whether  an  analysis  of  stack 
gas  is  made  or  not,  is  to  use  a  screw  damper  in  connection 
with  a  common  siphon  gauge  to  measure  the  stack  draft.  As 
a  rule  the  screw  damper  is  a  home-made  affair  designed  to 
regulate  the  draft  and  carry  continually  a  suction  or  minus 
pressure  in  the  stack  as  shown  on  the  gauge.  A  common 
four-inch  siphon  gauge  should  be  located  in  close  proximity 
to  the  damper  regulator  or  screw  and  the  damper  regulated 
according  to  the  pressure.  The  screw  attachment  on  the 
damper  permits  of  delicate  and  careful  regulation  of  the 
damper  opening. 

The  best  suction  pressure  or  draft  to  carry  must  be 
determined  by  actual  tests.  After  once  determined  it  should 
be  checked  by  subsequent  tests  two  or  three  times  a  year. 
To  make  this  test  the  screw^  damper  and  gauge  must  be  in- 
stalled first  and  a  certain  stack  pressure  carried  on  the  gauge 
continuously  during  the  entire  length  of  each  individual 
test. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  changes  in  atmospheric  con- 
ditions such  as  barometer,  temperature  and  humidity 
greatly  affect  the  draft  in  any  chimney  or  stack.    With  the 

496 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

screw  damper  and  siphon  gauge,  an  even  stack  pressure  best 
suited  to  the  boiler  conditions  can  be  carried  at  all  times. 

A  special  draft  gauge  will  indicate  the  suction  or  minus 
pressure  more  closely  than  the  common  siphon  gauge  but  is 
a  more  expensive  instrument. 

Generally  the  draft  of  medium  sized  stacks  or  chimneys 
will  be  about  one  or  two-tenths  water  pressure. 


Section  '/r-B" 


Pilot  Light 


Sect f ON  C-'O' 


Elevation    u'z? 


NATURAL  GAS  BURNERS  AS  APPLIED   TO   VERTICAL 
TUBULAR  BOILERS 


497 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

Draft  Gauge — The  draft  gauge  is  a  modification  of  the 
ordinary  U  tube  gauge,  one  of  the  tubes  being  expanded  in  a 
reser\^oir  and  the  other  inchned  at  an  angle  to  the  latter,  the 
angle  of  inclination  being  in  accordance  with  the  desired 
length  of  the  scale.  This  lengthens  each  one  inch  of  vertical 
scale  into  a  scale  five  or  ten  inches  long  as  desired,  and  thus 
1-100  of  an  inch  pressure  on  the  differential  gauge  is  as 
easily  determined  and  read  as  1-10  of  an  inch  on  the  or- 
dinary gauge. 

The  fluid  employed  for  filling  is  the  oil  known  as  "Mineral 
vSeal,"  having  a  specific  gravity  39  to  40  Beaume,  and  is 


Fig.  215— DRAFT  GAUGE 


preferable  to  water  because  its  capillary  attraction  is  much 
less,  thus  producing  more  accurate  indications.  The  evapor- 
ation is  also  much  less  than  water. 

The  instrument  is  made  of  an  aluminum  casting,  finely 
finished  or  of  finely  finished  wood.  It  is  portable  and  readily 
adjustable  to  position. 

Connections  are  tapped  for  one-eighth-inch  gas  pipe. 

Made  in  one-inch  and  three-inch  sizes. 

Operation  of  Natural  Gas  Burners  for  Boiler  Use — In 

addition  to  careful  installation,  the  success  of  a  gas  burner 
depends  somewhat  on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  operated. 
After  the  installation  has  been  completed  and  the  burners 
are  ready  to  put  in  operation,  see  that  all  the  valves  of  the 

498 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

gas  line  leading  to  the  burners  are  closed,  aho  that  the  damper 
in  the  stack  is  open  enough  to  carry  away  the  product  of  com- 
bustion. A  torch  can  be  lighted  and  placed  through  the 
center  of  a  burner  or  through  an  opening  beside  it  before  gas 
is  turned  on  to  this  individual  burner.  When  one  burner 
has  been  lighted  the  others  can  be  turned  on,  one  at  a  time, 
each  igniting  from  the  preceding  one ;  or  if  too  far  apart  each 
will  have  to  be  lighted  as  was  the  first  one. 

Under  no  consideration  should  a  gas  valve  be  opened 
until  the  light  has  been  put  into  the  furnace,  as  enough  gas 
will  accumulate  in  the  furnace  in  a  few  seconds  to  do  some 
damage  if  lighted  suddenly.  After  burners  have  all  been  put 
in  operation,  see  that  there  is  sufhcient  draft  to  carry  away  the 
products  of  combustion.  Where  there  have  been  just  two 
or  three  burners  used  and  the  checker-walls  have  become 
"white  heat"  and  the  burners  have  either  accidentally  been 
turned  off  or  gone  out,  the  lighted  torch  should  be  placed  in 
the  furnace  to  ignite  the  gas  before  a  burner  is  turned  on  again. 
It  should  not  be  expected  that  gas  will  ignite  from  the 
white  heated  checker-wall.  Actual  ignition  is  apt  to  be  de- 
layed until  considerable  gas  has  accumulated  in  the  furnace, 
thereby  causing  a  dangerous  explosion.  Under  no  circum- 
stances, in  case  the  gas  flame  goes  out,  should  one  depend 
upon  the  white  heated  checker-wall  to  ignite  the  gas. 

When  the  furnace  is  cold  it  should  be  heated  up  slowly, 
as  it  might  damage  the  brick  work  if  heated  too  rapidly. 
Only  enough  burners  should  be  used  to  do  the  work  required, 
as  their  economy  will  be  better  when  they  are  worked  at  their 

full  rating. 

Gas  should  not  be  used  at  a  greater  pressure  than  ten  or 
twelve  ounces.  Results  will  not  be  so  satisfactory  as  if  used 
at  a  lower  pressure.  vSatisfactory  results  have  been  obtained 
on  small  installations  witli  burners  as  low  as  one-half  oimce 
pressure. 

499 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

A  good  draft  is  absolutely  essential,  especially  if  the  fur- 
nace is  working  at  a  high  rating,  and  should  always  be  main- 
tained. 

A  gas-fired  furnace  should  burn  with  a  clear  blue  flame 
and  white  heat  and  with  as  little  white  flame  as  possible. 
The  presence  of  white  flame  indicates  carbon  monoxide. 
(CO),  which  means  bad  combustion. 

As  no  two  boilers  or  furnaces  will  work  exactly  alike,  no 
positive  instructions  can  be  given  which  will  cover  all  cases. 
The  object,  however,  is  to  secure  as  nearly  perfect  combus- 
tion as  possible.  Therefore,  any  valve  or  combination  of 
valves  or  other  conditions  which  will  obtain  that  result  are 
the  proper  ones  to  use,  regardless  of  any  other  instructions. 

SOME  CAUSES  RESPONSIBLE  FOR  FAILURES  WITH 
NATURAL  GAS  BURNERS 

Leak  of  gas  supply  at  burner. 

Pipes  too  small  and  too  many  turns. 

Pipes  clogged  by  corrosion  or  other  foreign  matter. 

Burner  openings  clogged  with  dirt. 

Burner  capacity  too  small  for  work  it  does. 

Draft  not  sufficient  for  work  being  done. 

Burners  not  properly  installed. 

Burners  not  properly  operated. 

It  is  not  probable  that  all  these  defects  will  be  present  in 
any  one  case,  but  some  of  the  above  defects  will  be  found  to 
exist  where  failures  result. 

Boiler  Testing — There  have  been  many  cases  where 
boiler  tests  have  shown  a  great  loss  of  fuel  through  improper 
mixture  of  gas  and  air  in  the  burner.  Although  the  cost  of 
the  boiler  test  is  rather  expensiv^e,  and  though  it  may  not 
show  any  possibilities  of  saving  fuel,  it  is  a  great  satisfaction 
to  the  interested  party  to  learn  whether  they  are  obtaining 
the  full  benefit  from  the  gas. 

500 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

In  making  a  boiler  test  where  natural  gas  is  used  as  fuel 
in  a  patent  burner,  the  following  suggestions  should  be 
followed :  Prior  to  making  test  the  boiler  should  be  thorough- 
ly examined  and  should  be  absolutely  free  from  any  scale. 
The  area  of  the  heating  surface  should  be  figured  next,  using 
the  diameter  of  the  tube  next  to  the  water.  The  surface 
below  the  mean  level  of  the  water  is  termed  as  a  rule,  "water 
heating  surface,"  and  the  surface  above  the  mean  level  of 
the  water  is  called  "super-heating  surface." 

Install  new  or  lately  tested  gas  and  water  meters,  using 
a  low  pressure  regulator  back  of  gas  meter  to  enable  the 
carrying  of  an  even  pressure  of  gas.  In  laying  out  the  gas 
line  it  should  be  provided  with  a  mercury  gauge  and  a 
thermometer  well  to  obtain  the  pressure  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  gas.  Inasmuch  as  the  temperature  of  the  feed 
water  should  be  kept  as  high  as  possible  in  order  to  get  the 
maximum  efficiency  from  the  gas,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a 
hot  water  meter.  If  a  feed  pump  is  used,  the  meter  should 
work  on  the  boiler  side  of  the  pump  and  the  working  pressure 
of  the  pump  be  kept  as  constant  as  possible.  If  an  injector 
is  used  on  the  water  line  feeding  the  boiler,  it  should  receive 
the  steam  directly  from  the  boiler  while  being  tested,  and  the 
feed  water  should  be  passed  through  the  hot  water  meter 
after  being  thrown  out  by  the  injector. 

Prior  to  starting  test,  the  boiler  should  be  heated  up  for 
at  least  three  or  four  hours  and  put  into  service  on  the  main 
steam  line.  A  test  should  last  from  ten  to  twenty-four  hours 
and  a  log  sheet  kept  of  all  meter  readings,  temperatures, 
drafts  and  steam  pressures.  All  notations  should  be  made 
hourly  or  oftener.  The  reading  of  gas  and  water  meters 
should  be  taken  at  the  beginning  and  every  twenty  minutes 
thereafter  to  the  end  of  the  test. 

At  the  time  of  starting  a  test  the  level  of  the  water  should 
be  marked  on  the  gauge  glass  by  scratching  with  a  file  or 
tying  a  piece  of  wire  or  string  around  the  glass. 

501 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

Temperatures  should  be  taken  of  the  steam,  feed  water, 
stack,  and  gas  and  air  in  the  engine  room  and  outside  of  the 
building. 

The  draft  should  be  measured  with  water  in  a  U  tube 
both  in  the  furnace  and  the  hood  of  the  stack.  The  steam 
pressure  and  gas  pressure  should  be  noted  hourly.  Any 
heavy  or  sudden  pull  on  the  boiler  should  be  mentioned  under 
the  head  of  "Remarks." 

The  test  should  be  absolutely  uniform  with  respect  to 
load  to  get  the  conditions  of  maximum  economy,  but  to  show 
the  sensitiveness  of  the  burner  and  boiler,  a  variable  load 
should  be  used. 

A  calorimeter  test  is  important  to  ascertain  the  quality 
of  the  steam,  i.e.,  whether  the  steam  is  "saturated"  or  con- 
tains the  quantity  of  heat  due  to  the  pressure  according  to 
standard  experiments;  second,  whether  the  quantity  of  heat 
is  deficient,  causing  the  steam  to  be  wet;  and  third,  whether 
the  heat  is  in  excess  and  the  steam  superheated. 

The  method  commonly  employed  is  the  barrel  calori- 
meter, which  with  careful  operation  and  fairly  accurate 
instruments  may  generally  be  relied  upon  to  give  results 
within  two  per  cent. 

The  calorimeter  is  described  as  follows:  A  sample  of 
steam  is  taken  by  inserting  a  perforated  one-half-inch  pipe 
into  and  through  the  main  pipe  near  the  boiler  and  con- 
ducted by  a  hose,  thoroughly  felted,  to  a  barrel  holding 
preferably  400  pounds  of  water,  which  is  set  upon  a  plat- 
form scale  provided  with  a  valve  for  allowing  the  water  to 
flow  to  waste  and  with  a  small  propeller  for  stirring  the 
water. 

The  barrel  is  filled  with  water,  the  weight  and  tempera- 
ture ascertained,  steam  blown  through  the  hose  outside  the 
barrel  until  the  pipe  is  thoroughly  warm,  when  the  hose  is 
suddenly  thrust  into  the  water  and  the  propeller  operated 
until  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  increased  to  a  desired 

502 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

point,  usually  about  110  deg.  The  hose  is  then  withdrawn 
quickly,  the  temperature  noted,  and  the  weight  again  taken. 

An  error  of  one-tenth  pound  in  weighing  the  condensed 
steam  or  an  error  of  one-half  degree  in  temperature  will 
cause  an  error  of  over  one  per  cent,  in  the  calculated  per- 
centage of  moisture. 

The  calculation  of  the  percentage  of  moisture  is  made  as 
follows  (Kent's  "Mechanical  Engineer's  Book"): 


e= 


H  —  T\_w  J 


()  =  Quality  of  steam,  dry  saturated  steam  being  unity. 

//  =  Total  heat  of  one  pound  of  steam  at  the  observed 
pressure. 

T  =  Total  heat  of  one  pound  of  water  at  the  temperature 
of  steam  of  observed  pressure. 

//  =  Total  heat  of  one  pound  of  condensing  water, 
original. 

hi  =  Total  heat  of  one  pound  of  condensing  water, 
linal. 

W  =  Weight  of  condensing  water  corrected  for  water- 
equivalent  of  the  apparatus. 

w  =  Weight  of  the  steam  condensed. 

Percentage  of  moisture  =  \  —  Q. 

If  Q  is  greater  than  unity,  the  steam  is  superheated,  and 
the  degrees  of  superheating  equal  2.0833   (//  —  T)  {Q  —  1). 

For  accurate  determination,  all  the  steam  made  by  the 
boiler  should  be  passed  through  a  separator,  the  water 
separated  should  be  weighed,  and  a  calorimeter  test  made 
of  the  steam  just  after  it  has  passed  the  separator.  The 
percentage  of  water  extracted  by  the  separator  should  then 
be  added  to  that  determined  by  the  calorimeter  to  give  the 
total  percentage  of  mixture  in  the  steam. 

503 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

The  throttling  calorimeter  is  a  convenient  and  accurate 
instrument  for  determining  the  quality  of  the  steam.  For 
description,  see  any  treatise  on  boiler  or  boiler  testing. 

The  analysis  of  gas  to  be  used,  while  not  always  required, 
is  necessary  for  an  exhaustive  test,  and  from  this  analysis  the 
calorific  value  of  the  fuel  can  be  calculated;  or,  better  still, 
this  value  may  be  directly  determined  by  some  standard 
form  of  calorimeter,  such  as  the  Junker's. 

A  chemical  analysis  of  the  stack  gas  should  be  carefully 
made  by  a  chemist  to  determine  the  existence  of  unburnt 
gases  caused  by  improper  mixture  of  gas  and  air  in  the  burner. 
Samples  of  stack  gas  should  be  taken  hourly  and  the  analysis 
can  be  made  by  the  common  Orsat  apparatus  to  show  the 
carbon  dioxide,  carbon  monoxide,  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 
From  these  results  the  excess  of  air  used  by  the  burner  can 
be  calculated.     (vSee  Stack  Gas  Analysis,  following  page.) 

The  method  for  calculating  the  boiler  efficiency  is  as 
follows:  Divide  the  heat  absorbed  per  hundred  feet  of  gas 
by  the  calorific  value  of  one  hundred  cubic  feet  of  gas  sup- 
plied. From  the  results  obtained  from  the  log  sheet,  the 
approximate  heat  balance  or  statement  of  the  distribution 
of  heating  value  of  the  gas  may  be  obtained. 

The  gas  per  hour  should  be  calculated,  together  with  the 
gas  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  per  hour.  The  total 
weight  of  water  feed  can  be  calculated  from  the  meter  read- 
ings, and  the  feed  water  temperature  by  referring  to  any 
table  which  gives  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  water  under 
different  temperatures.  The  equivalent  water  fed  to  the 
boiler  from  and  at  212  deg.  fahr.  may  be  ascertained  from  a 
table  of  factors  of  evaporation,  after  having  been  corrected 
for  moisture  in  the  steam. 

The  horse  power  which  is  determined  at  34)^  pounds  of 
water  evaporated  from  and  at  212  deg.  fahr.  may  be  figured 
from  the  last  results.     The  builder's  rated  horse  power  is 

504 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

obtained  from  the  boiler  specifications  and  the  percentage 
of  boiler's  rated  horse  power  calculated. 

One  boiler  horse  power  is  the  evaporation  of  343/^  pounds 
of  water  per  hour  from  a  feed  water  temperature  of  212  deg, 
fahr.,  to  steam  at  the  same  temperature  (spoken  of  as  "from 
and  at  212  deg.  fahr."j  and  is  equal  to  33,305  B.  t.  u.  per 
hour. 

Testing  Gas  Burners — The  only  fair  way  of  testing  a  gas 
burner  is  to  analyze  the  flue  gases,  a  sample  of  which  should 
be  taken  as  near  the  point  of  combustion  as  possible,  having 
all  air  leaks  well  stopped  in  the  boiler  setting  back  of  the  flue 
box.  The  amount  of  CO,  CO2  and  free  oxygen  contained  in 
this  sample  will  determine  whether  the  right  quantities  of 
gas  and  oxygen  were  properly  mixed  at  the  point  of  ignition. 

Stack  Gas  Analysis — ^To  every  boiler  user  this  branch  of 
engine  room  work  is  very  important.  In  fact  it  is  more  so 
than  is  generally  realized.  Very  few,  if  any,  factories  where 
natural  gas  is  used  as  fuel  are  equipped  with  gas  analysis 
apparatus.  The  writer  does  not  desire  to  state  that  the 
analyzing  of  stack  gas  will  show  a  loss  in  every  case;  but 
where  no  loss  is  shown  it  is  a  great  satisfaction  to  know  that 
fuel  gas  is  being  used  with  economy. 

Sampling  Apparatus — A  glass  tube  tive-eighth-inch  in 
diameter  and  about  three  feet  long,  drawn  down  to  one- 
fourth-inch  at  one  end,  is  inserted  in  the  stack  just  above  the 
hood.  For  this  purpose  a  three-quarter-inch  hole  is  drilled 
in  the  stack  and  the  space  around  the  glass  tube  is  stopped 
with  putty  or  wet  cotton  waste.  Prior  to  taking  the  sample, 
all  openings  other  than  legitimate  ones  for  draft  should  be 
carefully  closed. 

The  stack  gas  must  be  sucked  into  the  tube  by  use  of  a 
pump  or  steam  jet.  When  samples  are  taken  infrequently 
an  ordinary  double-ended  syringe  bulb,  provided  with  a  hard 
rubber  valve,  may  be  used. 

505 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

There  are  many  methods  that  may  be  devised,  but  the 
main  thing  to  bear  in  mind  is  to  obtain  a  true  sample  of  the 
stack  gas  absolutely  free  from  air. 

The  principle  of  making  an  analysis  is  the  same  as  in 
analyzing  natural  gas  (see  page  80),  i.e.,  by  absorbing  the 
different  constituents  in  the  stack  gas  sample  one  by  one, 
and  measuring  the  decrease  in  volume  caused  by  such  ab- 
sorption. 

The  following  chemical  solutions  are  used  for  the 
absorption  process. 

For  carbon  dioxide  (carbonic  acid),  potassium  hydrate. 
For  oxygen,  alkaline  solution  of  potassium  pyrogallate. 
For  carbonic  oxide,  cuprous  chloride. 

After  the  sample  has  been  subjected  to  the  absorption 
action  of  each  of  the  above  chemicals  and  correct  deductions 
made,  the  residue  may  consist  of  nitrogen  (the  principle 
constituent),  hydrocarbons  and  hydrogen. 

If  desired,  a  sample  of  the  flue  gas  can  be  taken — 
leaving  as  little  water  in  the  apparatus  as  possible — and  sent 
to  a  competent  chemist  for  analysis. 

Gas  Pressure — Pressure  should  be  measured  at  the 
burner,  not  at  the  meter  or  regulator.  The  greater  the  gas 
pressure,  the  greater  the  velocity  of  the  gas  leaving  the 
burner,  creating  a  better  vacuum  and  thereby  causing  a 
greater  volume  of  air  to  enter  the  mixing  chamber,  which 
will  increase  the  capacity  of  the  burner. 

Eight-ounce  pressure  gives  the  best  results,  with  a 
working  range  of  from  five  to  twelve  ounces. 

Results — It  is  not  possible  to  derive  the  same  boiler 
efficienc}'  in  all  gas  fields,  but  assuming  that  the  gas  contains 
1000  B.  t.  u.  per  cubic  foot,  the  boiler  or  furnace  should 
develop  an  efficiency  of  at  least  seventy  per  cent,  or  greater. 

506 


Sample 

Sami)le 

Sample 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

.   0.45 

0.15 

0.50 

.  0.00 

0.00 

0.15 

.   0.20 

0  30 

0.25 

.81.05 

83.20 

83.40 

.17.60 

15.55 

15.40 

.   0.00 

0.20 

0  00 

.   0.15 

0.10 

0.00 

.   0.55 

0.50 

0.30 

INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

BOILER  TEST  OF  NATURAL  GAS 
Made  by  Jay  M.  Whitham  at  Parsons  Pulp  &  Paper  Com- 
pany, Parsons,  W.Va.,  on  Six  250  Horse  Power  Cook 
Vertical  Water  Tube  Boilers. 

Analysis  of  Gases  Used  and  Taken  from  Nine  Wells  in  Lewis 
County,  West  Virginia — 


lUuminants 

Carbonic  oxide 

Hydrogen 

Marsh  gas 

Ethane 

Carbonic  acid 0.00 

Oxygen 0.15 

Nitrogen 

B.  t.  u.  in  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  at  60  deg.  fahr. 
and  14.7  lb.  barometer  available  for  use- 
ful effect 1030  1020  1025 

Test  number 812 

Duration,  hours 9 

Barometer,  pounds 14.25 

Boiler  gauge  pressure,  pounds 132.7 

Draft  in  front  of  damper,  inches 0.20 

Gas  pressure  at  meter,  pounds 18.0 

Gas  pressure  at  burners,  ounces 6.4 

Temperature  of  air,  deg.  fahr 69 

Fire  room,  deg.  fahr 73 

Natural  gas,  deg.  fahr 70 

Feed  water,  deg.  fahr 185 

Chimney,  deg.  fahr 494 

Gas,  metered  cubic  feet 541.420 

Equivalent  gas  at  70  deg.  fahr.  and  under  4  ounces  pressure  537,197 

Water  evaporated,  pounds 435,625 

Ivquivalent  water  at  and  from  212  deg.  fahr.,  pounds 467,948 

Boiler  h.  p.  made 1507.0 

Cubic  feet  of  gas,  actual,  per  boiler  h.  p.  per  hour 39.92 

Cubic  feet  of  gas  at  4  ounces  and  60  de^.  fahr.  per  boiler 

h.  p.  per  hour 39.6 


507 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

GAS   ENGINES  (Section) 

Gas  engines  are  divided  into  two  general  classes  com- 
monly known  as  two  cycle  and  four  cycle. 

These  terms  are  derived  from  the  number  of  strokes  of 
the  piston  required  to  complete  a  cycle,  during  which  time 
only  one  impulse  is  given  to  the  piston. 

The  two  cycle  engine  gives  one  impulse  to  the  piston 
for  each  revolution  of  the  crank  shaft  and  is  more  flexible  in 
speed  control  than  the  four  cycle  engine  which  gives  but  one 
impulse  to  the  piston  for  each  two  revolutions  of  the  crank 
shaft. 

For  steady  work  such  as  driving  a  pumping  station  the 
four  cycle  engine  is  best  suited. 

For  fluctuating  work  such  as  cleaning  out  wells  the  two 
cycle  engine  is  most  desirable. 

Ignition  is  usually  effected  by  allowing  the  compressed 
mixture  to  enter  an  iron  tube,  kept  at  a  bright  red  heat  by  a 
Bunsen  flame  surrounding  it.  Electric  ignition  is  frequently 
used,  in  which  case  the  electric  current  is  generally  furnished 
by  a  magneto  so  arranged  to  generate  a  maximum  current 
at  the  proper  firing  instant. 

The  proper  firing  instant  varies  according  to  load,  speed 
and  quantity  of  mixture.  The  length  of  the  hot  tube  may 
be  varied  to  suit  local  conditions. 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

Average  Amount  of  Natural  Gas  Required  to  Operate  Gas 
Engines  or  for  Steam  Engines  where  Natural  Gas  is 
used  as  Fuel  Under  Boilers,  in  Cubic  Feet  per  Indicated 
H.  P.  per  Hour. 


Type  of  Engine 


Cubic  Feet  of  Gas 

per  Horse  Power 

per  Hour 


Large  natural  gas  engine,  highest  type 

Ordinary  natural  gas  engine 

Triple  expansion  condensing  steam  engine 

Double  expansion  condensing  steam  engine 

Single  cylinder  and  cut-off  steam  engine 

Ordinary  high  pressure,  without  cut-off,  steam 

engine 

Ordinary  oil  well  pumping  steam  engine 


9 

13 
16 
20 
40 

80 
130 


From  ten  to  twelve  cubic  feet  of  air  are  necessary  for  the 
complete  combustion  of  one  cubic  foot  of  natural  gas.  The 
natural  gas  engine  has  been  most  successfully  introduced  as 
a  source  of  power  throughout  the  entire  gas  belt.  The  first 
engines  were  from  ten  to  fifteen  horse  power,  and  were  used 
in  pumping  oil  wells.  Of  late  they  have  also  been  used  to 
some  extent  for  drilhng  wells.  Many  natural  gas  engines 
working  up  to  2,500  horse  powder,  are  in  use  at  this  date 
compressing  natural  gas,  where  the  original  pressure  is  not 
sufficient  to  carry  the  required  quantity  to  market. 

Horse  Power  of  Gas  Engines — The  horse  power  of  a 
gas  engine  is  usually  rated  as  the  actual  power  delivered  to 
the  belt  on  average  fuel.  This  power  delivered  to  the  belt 
bears  a  close  relationship  to  the  power  developed  in  the 
cylinder  and  the  more  excellent  the  design  and  construc- 
tion of  the  engine  the  more  nearly  will  these  two  powers  be 
equal. 

Power  is  developed  by  compressing  a  mixed  charge  of 
gas  and  air  in  the  cylinder  and  then  igniting  it.  The  heat 
produced  by  the  combtistion  causes  the  gases  to  expand  and 

509 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

exert  a  pressure  on  the  piston  which  drives  the  latter  forward 
to  the  end  of  its  stroke  when  the  pressure  is  released  by 
means  of  the  exhaust  valve. 

The  pressure  due  to  rapid  combustion  is  the  same  for  any 
size  engine  provided  the  compression  and  mixture  are  the 
same  and  the  horse  power  of  the  engine  depends  upon  the 
size  of  the  cylinder. 

Various  ratings  are  used  to  designate  the  size  of  an 
engine  but  the  surest  guide  to  comparative  power  is  to 
compare  the  sizes  of  cylinders. 

Size  for  size  a  two  cycle  engine  will  develop  some- 
thing less  than  twice  the  power  of  a  four  cycle  engine. 

In  buying  engines,  do  not  be  guided  altogether  by  horse 
power  rating  but  look  well  into  cylinder  sizes  to  determine 
whether  the  engine  is  large  enough  to  justify  its  rating. 

Size  of  Gas  Supply  Pipe — Multiply  the  horse  power  of 
the  engine  by  .03  and  add  3^-inch  to  lind  the  proper  size  of 
gas  supply  pipe. 

Length  and  Diameter  of  Services  for  Gas  Engines. 


50  Feet 

100  Feet 

150  Feet 

225  Feet 

lorse  Power 

of  Pipe 

of  Pipe 

of  Pipe 

of  Pipe 

of  Engine 

Diam.  In. 

Diam.  In. 

Diam.  In. 

Diam.  In. 

5 

1 

1 

IM 

IM 

]0 

Hi 

W2 

IH 

Wi 

15 

IVa 

2 

2 

2 

20 

\Vi 

2 

2 

2 

30 

Wl 

2^ 

2^ 

2^ 

40 

2 

23^ 

W2 

3 

50 

2M 

23^ 

3 

3 

Exhaust  Pipe — The  exhaust  pipe  should  be  as  straight 
and  free  from  bends  as  possible  also  the  outlet  should  be 
shielded  to  prevent  rain  collecting  therein.  The  diameter  of 
the  exhaust  pipe  should  be  between  one-third  and  one-quarter 
of  the  cylinder  diameter. 

510 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

Circulating  Water  Waaler  must  be  kept  circulating  in 
the  jacket  of  the  engine  cylinder  to  cool  the  walls  and  make 
lubrication  possible.  This  requires  from  four  to  six  gallons 
per  horse  power  per  hour.  Where  a  tank  is  used  its  capacity 
should  be  such  as  to  allow  twenty  to  forty  gallons  per  horse 
power. 

The  water  circulating  pipes  should  be  free  from  bends 
and  the  top  or  return  pipe  should  be  one-half-inch  larger 
than  the  bottom  or  inlet  pipe.  The  return  pipe  should  enter 
the  tank  below  the  top  level  of  the  water  therein. 

When  hard  water  is  used  for  the  jacket  put  a  handful 
of  ordinary  washing  soda  into  the  tank  about  once  a  month. 

COMPARATIVE  ACTUAL  OPERATING  COSTS  OF  100 

H.   P.   IN  THE  VARIOUS   PRACTICAL  FORMS 

OF    POWER    NOW    AVAILABLE 

Based  on  a  Ruxxing  Day  of  10  Hours;  310  Days  per  Year;  Full 
Load  Continuously  for  Entire  Ten  Hours. 

In  making  comparisotis  with  his  own  actual  costs  of 
operation,  the  power  user  should  take  the  total  cost  of  a 
single  horse  power,  as  given  in  synopsis  below;  and,  figuring 
from  the  basis  of  the  actual  load  his  power  plant  is  carrying, 
cut  from,  or  add  to,  all  the  other  figures  proportionately. 

Steam  engines  are  sold  at  their  indicated  horse  power, 
which  is  from  10  per  cent,  to  18  per  cent,  higher  than  their 
brake  horse  power.  Gas  engines  are  sold  at  brake  horse 
power,  and  a  100  h.  p.  gas  engine  has  from  10  per  cent,  to 
18  per  cent,  greater  efficiency  than  a  100  h.  p.  steam  engine. 


511 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 


Ordinary 
Steam 
Engine 


Fuel 1  $3,720.00 

Attendance 7        775.00 

Oil,  waste,  cleaning  materials  75.00 

Packing 5.00 

Water 11          77.50 

Repairs 13        109.50 

Depreciation 17        255.50 

Interest  on  investment— 69r  219.00 


Complete  actual  cost  of  oper- 
ation   


85,236.50 


Compound 

Condensing 

Engine 


2  $2,092.50 

7       775.00 

75.00 

5.00 

387.50 

13       175.50 

17       409.50 

351.00 


$4,271.00 


Electricity 


3  $6,975.00 

8         77.50 

50.00 


52.50 
175.00 
105.00 


$7,435.00 


Fuel 

Attendance 

Oil,  waste, cleaning  materials 

Packing 

Water 

Repairs 

Depreciation 

Interest  on  investment — 6% 


Complete  actual  cost  of  oper- 
ation   


Gas  Engine 
Illuminat- 
ing Gas 


4  $4,216.00 

9       155.00 

75. uO 


46.50 

75.00 

187.50 

225.00 


$4,980.00 


Gas  Engine 

Natural 

Gas 


5$  1,116.00 

9       155.00 

75.00 


46.50 

75.00 

187.50 

225.00 


$1,880.00 


Gas  Engine 

Producer 

Gas 


6$    639.37 

10       258.33 

75.00 


77.50 

85.00 

187.50 

381.00 


$1,703.70 


1.  Based  on  8  lb.  coal,  at  $3  per  ton,  per  B.  h.  p. 
hour;    covering  operation  and  stand  by  consumption. 

2.  Based  on  4J/^  lb.  coal,  at  S3  per  ton,  per  B.  h.  p. 
hour;    covering  operation  and  standby  consumption. 

3.  1000  Watts  equal  1  Kilowatt;  100  h.  p.  equals  75 
Kilowatts;  75  Kilowatts  at  3c  per  hour  equals  $22.50  per 
day. 

4.  Based  on  consumption  of  17  cubic  feet  per  B.  h.  p. 
hour  at  80c  per  M  equals  $13.60  per  day. 

512 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

o.  Based  on  consumption  of  12  cubic  feet  per  B.  h.  p. 
hour,  at  30c  per  M  equals  S3. 60  per  day. 

6.  Based  on  1.5  anthracite  screenings,  at  S2.50  per  ton, 
per  B.  h.  p.  hour,  including  stand-by  losses,  equals  1,650  lb. 
per  day. 

7.  One  licensed  engineer  at  $2.50  per  day. 

8.  Average  of  one  hour's  attendance  per  day  of  man  at 
$2.50. 

9.  2  hours  per  day  will  cover  all  attendance  necessary; 
licensed  engineer  not  obligatory. 

10.  One-third  of  one  man's  time,  at  $2.50  per  day,  will 
take  care  of  plant. 

11.  Based  on  price  of  5c  per  M.  gals.,  which  is  about 
same  when  pumped  by  condenser  pump. 

12.  3  gals,  per  B.  h.  p.  per  hour.  By  use  of  tank  same 
water  can  be  used  over  and  over,  and  water  expenses 
eliminated. 

13.  Estimated  at  3  per  cent,  of  entire  cost  of  plant  per 
annum,  including  boiler. 

14.  Estimated  at  3  per  cent,  of  entire  cost  of  plant  per 
annum. 

15.  Estimated  at  2  per  cent,  of  entire  cost  of  plant  per 
annum. 

16.  $10.00  per  annum  will  more  than  cover  all  repairs 
on  producer  plant,  as  same  is  subject  to  no  stress  or  strain; 
2  per  cent,  is  estimated  as  repairs  on  gas  engine  poriton  of 
plant. 

17.  Estimated  at  7  per  cent,  of  entire  cost  of  plant. 

18.  Estimated  at  10  per  cent,  of  entire  cost  of  plant. 

19.  Estimated  at  3  per  cent,  of  entire  cost  of  plant. 

20.  $10.00  per  annum  in  repairs  will  keep  producer 
portion  of  plant  in  perpetual  good  condition,  and  depreciation 
is  therefore  figured  on  gas  engine  only. 

513 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 


Synopsis  of  Above  Tables  of  Actual  Operating  Costs  of  100 
Horse  Power. 


Ordinary  steam  engine.  . 
Compound  steam  engine 

Electricity 

Illuminating  gas 

Natural  gas 

Producer  gas 


Comparative 
annual  operating 
costs  of  100  h.  p. 
in  proportion  to 

initial  cost  of 
plant 


Actual  annual 
operating  cost 

of  different 

forms  of  power 

per  h.  p. 


$52.36 
42.71 
74.35 
49.80 
16.94 
14.90 


Compounded  vSteam  Engine  is  29  per  cent,  cheaper  to 
operate  than  an  ordinary  steam  engine. 

Electricity  is  30  per  cent,  dearer  to  operate  than  an 
ordinary  steam  engine. 

Gas  engine  (ilium,  gas)  is  5  per  cent,  cheaper  to  operate 
than  an  ordinary  steam  engine. 

Gas  engine  (natural  gas)  is  68  per  cent,  cheaper  to 
operate  than  an  ordinary  steam  engine. 

Gas  engine  (producer  gas)  is  73  per  cent,  cheaper  to 
operate  than  an  ordinary  steam  engine. 

Electricity  is  43  per  cent,  dearer  to  operate  than  a 
compound  steam  engine. 

Gas  engine  (illuminating  gas)  is  16  per  cent,  dearer  to 
operate  than  a  compound  steam  engine. 

Gas  engine  (natural  gas)  is  61  per  cent,  cheaper  to 
operate  than  a  compound  steam  engine. 

Gas  engine  (producer  gas)  is  65  per  cent,  cheaper  to 
operate  than  a  compound  steam  engine. 

Gas  engine  (illuminating  gas)  is  33  per  cent,  cheaper 
to  operate  than  electricity. 

514 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

Gas  engine  (natural  gasj  is  77  per  cent,  cheaper  to  oper- 
ate than  electricity. 

Gas  engine  (producer  gasj  is  80  per  cent,  cheaper  to 
operate  than  electricity. 

Gas  engine  (natural  gas)  is  62  per  cent,  cheaper  to 
operate  than  illuminating  gas. 

Gas  engine  (producer  gas)  is  70  per  cent,  cheaper  to 
operate  than  illuminating  gas. 

Gas  engine  (producer  gas)  is  12  per  cent,  cheaper  to 
operate  than  natural  gas. 

{Courtesx  Bessemer  Gas  Engine  Co.) 


Fig.  217— 100    H.  P.    GAS    EXGIXE    WITH    DIRECT    C()\ X ECTIOX 
TO    100    K.  \V.    GEXERATOR 


515 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 


Fig.  218~TRANSV ERSE  CURRENT  HEATER  INSTALLED   WITH  A 
100  H.  P.  GAS  ENGINE 


516 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 

Transverse  Current  Heater  for  Gas  Engines — It  is  a 
well  known  fact  that  in  the  use  of  gas  for  power  in  a  gas 
engine  but  a  small  percentage  of  the  total  B.  t.  u.  in  the  gas 
is  used.  vSome  engineers  claim  this  to  be  but  25^  [  and  that 
the  balance  of  the  heat  units  in  the  gas  are  wasted  in  the 
exhaust  or  burnt  gas  from  the  engine. 

The  transv^erse  heater  is  attached  to  the  exhaust  pipe 
of  any  gas  engine  and  the  exhaust  gas,  in  passing  through 
and  around  the  water  coils  within  the  heater,  as  illustrated 
in  Figure  Number  219,  heats  a  volume  of  flowing  water. 
This  hot  water  is  mainly  valuable  for  heating  although  it  is 
used  for  other  purposes.  After  the  heater  is  once  installed 
there  is  practically  no  further  expense. 

The  heater  is  especially  adapted  where  gas  engines  or 
compressors  are  in  use  twenty-four  hours  daily. 


Fig.  S19— SECTIONAL   VIEW  OF    TRANSVERSE  HEATER. 
517 


INDUSTRIAL        CONSUMPTION        OF        GAS 


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INDUSTRIAL 


CONSUMPTION 


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519 


PART  SIXTEEN 

Condensation  of  Gasoline  from  Natural  Gas 
GASOLINE  GAS— LIQUEFIED  GAS 

The  comparatively  recent  development  of  processes  for 
utilizing  "casing  head  gas"  by  extracting  gasoline  from  it,  is 
one  of  the  greatest  steps  taken  during  the  past  ten  or  fifteen 
years  toward  true  conserv^ation  of  natural  gas  resources. 

The  extraction  of  gasoline  from  gasoline  gas  is  practi- 
cally a  process  of  compression  and  refrigeration. 

While  laboratory  tests  may  show  that  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  from  six  to  twelve  gallons  of  gasoline  from  1000  cubic 
feet  of  gas,  it  is  always  safer  to  figure  from  three  to  six  gallons 
per  1000  cubic  feet. 

There  have  been  manv  instances  where  "casing  head 
gas"  has,  after  compression  and  refrigeration,  proven  not 
to  have  carried  enough  gasoline  to  make  it  a  profitable 
proposition.  This  was  due  to  the  gas  having  come  through 
an  oil  bearing  strata,  where  the  oil  was  of  an  asphaltum 
basis,  and  therefore  very  low  in  paraffin  hydrocarbons  for 
the  gas  to  pick  up. 

Before  constructing  a  very  expensive  refining  or  com- 
pressing plant,  practical  experiments  with  small  plants 
should  be  carefully  carried  out  and  chemical  anatysis,  while 
necessary,  should  not  be  depended  upon  entirely. 

It  is  more  profitable  to  manufacture  the  lower  gravity 
gasoline  (even  though  less  of  it  is  obtained  from  1000  cubic 
feet  of  gas)  than  it  is  to  install  expensive  machinery  and 
extract  a  greater  number  of  gallons  of  high  gravity,  because 
the  latter  is  so  volatile  that  one  is  able  to  market  but  a 
fraction  of  the  quantity  actually  made. 

All  "casing  head  gas"  contains  hydrocarbons  of  the 
higher  orders  in  the  paraffin  group,  such  as  Propane,  Butane, 

520 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Pig_  220— A  PUMPING  OIL  WELL  SHOWING  ''CASING  HEAD''  AND  LEAD 
LINES  TO  CARRY  THE  GASOLINE  GAS  TO  THE  COMPRESSING  PLANT 

Pentane  and  Hexane,  and  it  is  the  relative  percentage  of 
these  present  in  the  gas  that  determines  the  quantity  and 
quaHty  of  the  gasohne  that  may  be  extracted  from  it. 

The  specific  gravity  of  this  "casing  head  gas"  often  runs 
as  high  as  1.50  (air  =  1.0),  due  to  the  large  percentage  of 
heavy  hydrocarbons  present. 

The  heating  value  of  casing  head  gas,  in  B.  t.  u.  per  cu. 
ft.,  is  extremely  high,  due  to  the  presence  of  the  rich  hydro- 
carbons above  mentioned.  When  these  are  extracted  in  the 
form  of  so-called  gasoline,  the  gas  remaining  has  the  heating 
value  and  other  properties  of  normal  "dry"  natural  gas,  be- 
ing, in  fact,  in  the  condition  in  which  it  existed  before  it 
picked  up  the  higher  hydrocarbon  vapors  in  its  passage 
through  the  oil  bearing  sands. 

The  volume  ratio  of  dry  residue  gas  to  the  wet  gas  before 
the  gasoline  is  extracted  varies  from  0.69  to  1.00,  depending 
upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  gasoline  extracted.  That 
is,  from  600  to  1000  cubic  feet  of  dry  gas  will  remain  after 
extracting  the  gasoline  from  1000  cubic  feet  of  wet  gas. 

521 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

High  grav^ity  gasoline  lies  dormant  when  cold,  but  as  its 
temperature  rises  above  its  boiling  point  it  begins  to  agitate 
or  boil,  creating  a  vapor  tension  in  the  tank  or  drum  which 
raises  the  boiling  point  to  that  corresponding  to  the  increased 
vapor  pressure,  thus  maintaining  a  condition  of  equilibrium. 

The  gravity  of  gasoline  may  be  reduced  by  mixing  with 
it  a  quantity  of  lower  gravity  gasoline.  For  instance,  50  lb. 
of  86  deg.  gravity  gasoline  mixed  with  50  lb.  of  56  deg.  gravity 
gasoline  will  give  100  lb.  of  71  deg.  gravity  gasoline.  This 
does  not,  however,  result  in  a  stable  mixture  if  left  uncon- 
fined,  as  the  lighter  gravity  gasoline  will  gradually  evaporate 
from  the  mixture. 

Gasoline  Gas  Industry  (ByO.  J.  SiepIein,Ph.  D.)—"A\\ 
liquids,  when  exposed  to  the  air  or  to  any  gas,  gradually 
change  to  vapor.  The  rate  at  which  this  change  takes  place 
increases  as  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  rises.  When  the 
vapor  is  being  formed  quietly,  w^e  speak  of  the  liquid  as 
evaporating  or  vaporizing.  When  the  temperature  is  suffi- 
ciently high,  the  vapor  forms  rapidly  in  the  body  of  the  liquid 
and  appears  as  bubbles  which  rise  through  the  liquid.  We 
say  the  liquid  is  boiling,  and  its  temperature  is  its  boiling 
point.  If  the  liquid  is  pure,  the  boiling  point  will  remain 
constant  as  long  as  there  is  any  liquid.  If  we  are  dealing  with 
a  mixture  of  two  liquids  of  different  boiling  points  the  boiling 
will  usually  begin  at  the  boiling  point  of  the  lower  boiling 
liquid.  The  temperature  will  gradually  rise  as  the  boiling 
continues,  until,  as  the  last  portion  boils  away,  the  tempera- 
ture has  reached  the  boiling  point  of  the  higher  boiling  liquid. 
By  boiling  the  liquid  slowly,  condensing  the  vapors  and  col- 
lecting the  first  portions  of  condensate  separately  from  the 
later  ones,  we  bring  about  a  rough  separation  of  the  two 
constituents  of  the  mixture.  This  is  the  principle  made  use 
of  in  the  separation  of  petroleum  into  its  various  products 
by  distillation,  also  in  the  manufacture  of  the  various  dis- 
tilled liquors. 

522 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


The  boiling  point  of  liquid  varies  with  the  pressure 
exerted  upon  the  liquid.  Thus,  water  can  be  made  to  boil 
at  any  temperature  from  32  deg.  fahr.  to  698  deg.  fahr. 
Inasmuch  as  the  normal  pressure  of  the  air  is  hfteen  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  the  boiling  point  of  water  at  this  pressure 
is  212  deg.  fahr..  we  ordinarily  speak  of  212  deg.  fahr.  as  the 
boiling  point  of  water. 

523 


CONDENSATION     OF     GASOLINE     FROM     NATURAL     GAS 

If  we  close  a  vessel  partly  full  of  water,  with  a  safety 
valve  set  at  fifteen  pounds,  the  pressure  of  the  steam,  i.  e., 
the  pressure  on  the  water,  when  boiling  takes  place  and  the 
valve  is  opened,  is  fifteen  pounds  greater  than  the  pressure 
of  the  air,  or  a  total  of  thirty  pounds.  The  boiling  point  at 
this  pressure  is  249  deg.  fahr.  Similarly  the  boiling  point  for 
a  valve  pressure  of  thirty  pounds  (a  total  pressure  of  45 
pounds)  is  273  deg.  fahr.  vSpeaking  of  these  facts  from  a 
mechanical  engineer's  standpoint,  we  would  say  the  tem- 
perature of  saturated  steam  at  fifteen  pounds  is  249  deg.  fahr. 
and  at  thirty  pounds  is  273  deg.  fahr. 

Previous  to  1880,  it  was  thought  impossible  to  liquefy 
certain  gases  such  as  air  and  hydrogen.  These  were  there- 
fore known  as  permanent  or  perfect  gases.  Following  up  the 
work  of  Cailletet,  Pictet,  Dewar  and  others  in  the  perfection 
of  means  of  producing  and  maintaining  cold,  all  gases  have 
been  liquefied.  The  last  to  be  liquefied  was  helium,  an  inert 
gas  first  discovered  in  the  sun  and  later  found  to  be  present 
in  the  air  and  some  minerals.  The  boiling  point  of  hellium 
is  the  lowest  known,  it  being  451.6  deg.  fahr.  below  zero. 
The  invention  by  Dewar  of  vacuum- jacketed  vessels  aided 
more  than  any  other  one  thing  in  the  development  of  our 
knowledge  in  the  field.  This  invention  has  become  of  com- 
mercial importance,  its  outgrowth  being  the  vacuum- jacketed 
bottle  such  as  the  thermos. 

It  was  early  recognized  that  there  is  a  certain  definite 
temperature  for  each  substance  above  which  it  cannot  be 
liquefied  by  pressure.  This  temperature  is  known  as  the 
critical  temperature,  and  the  pressure  needed  to  produce  the 
liquid  at  this  temperature  as  the  critical  pressure.  An  ex- 
ample will  make  this  point  clear. 

The  critical  temperature  of  water Js_698  deg.  fahr.;  its 
critical  pressure  is  2.933  pounds  per  square  inch.  This 
means  that  at  a  temperature  below  698  deg.  fahr.  steam 
may,   by   application   of  pressure,   be   converted   to  liquid 

524 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

water,  and  tiiat  at  (JU<S  deg.  lahr.  2.\yS4  pcninds  are  necessary. 
vStated  otherwise,  it  means  that  steam  generated  at  this 
temperature  has  a  total  pressure  of  2.933  pounds  or  a  notice- 
able pressure  of  2.918  pounds,  the  excess  above  the  atmo- 
spheric pressure  of  15  pounds.  At  the  critical  temperature 
the  liquid  passes  over  into  the  gas  without  expansion. 

The  term  vapor  is  now  applied  to  gases  below  their 
critical  temperatures — that  is,  to  gases  which  by  pressure 
alone  can  be  converted  to  liquids.  The  term,  true,  perfect, 
or  permanent  gas,  is  applied  to  gases  above  their  critical 
temperatures. 

The  volume  of  a  gas  is  increased  by  the  application  of 
heat.  These  facts  are  known  to  anyone  who  is  observant. 
Scientific  experiment  has  proven  that  these  changes  in 
volume  are  perfectly  regular  for  true  gases,  and  are  inde- 
pendent of  the  nature  or  composition  of  the  gas.  The 
changes  in  volume  for  a  given  change  in  temperature  or 
pressure  are  the  same  for  all  true  gases.  Double  pressure 
reduces  the  volume  of  a  gas  to  one-half  the  original  volume ; 
triple  pressure  reduces  it  to  one-third,  etc.  Four  hundred 
and  sixty  cubic  feet  of  gas  at  0  deg.  fahr.  will  increase  one 
cubic  foot  for  each  degree  that  the  temperature  is  raised. 
It  would  be  470  cubic  feet  at  10  deg.  fahr.,  480  cubic  feet  at  20 
deg.  fahr.,  etc.  An  increase  of  pressure  on  a  gas  meets  with 
a  certain  resistance,  which  resistance  is  expressed  as  heat, 
warming  the  gas.  If  the  change  in  pressure  is  gradual,  the 
heat  is  radiated  to  surrounding  objects,  and  not  noticed. 
If,  as  in  commercial  practice,  the  change  in  pressure  is  sudden, 
the  heat  does  not  have  opportunity  to  radiate  and  the  warm- 
ing of  the  gas  is  considerable.  Therefore  the  volume  re- 
sulting on  doubling  the  pressure  would  be  more  than  one-half 
the  original  volume  because  the  temperature  of  the  com- 
pressed gas  is  higher  than  that  of  the  original  gas.  This 
increase  of  temperature  varies  with  original  temperatures, 
original  pressures,  final  pressures,  and  also  with  the  amount 

525 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

of  radiation.  The  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  is  dependent  on 
the  nature  of  the  containing  vessel. 

Whenever  a  gas  bubbles  through  or  comes  into  contact 
with  a  liquid  it  takes  up  vapor  of  that  liquid.  The  amount 
of  v^apor,  as  would  be  inferred  from  former  statements,  in- 
creases as  the  temperature  rises  and  is  quite  independent  of 
the  nature  of  the  gas.  Inasmuch  as  in  the  resulting  mixture 
the  gas  is  mixed  with  vapor  the  mixture  occupies  more  space 
than  the  original  gas.  Thus  1,000  cubic  feet  of  dry  air  at 
50  deg.  fahr.  will  take  up  nine  and  one-third  ounces  by 
weight  of  water  yielding  1,012  cubic  feet  of  moist  air;  1,000 
cubic  feet  of  dry  air  at  80  deg.  fahr.  will  take  up  twenty-five 
ounces,  by  weight,  of  water,  yielding  1,035  cubic  feet  of 
moist  air. 

When  natural  gas  in  the  earth  comes  into  contact  with 
petroleum  it  takes  up  some  of  the  petroleum  as  vapor. 
Petroleum  is  composed  of  a  large  number  of  substances, 
with  boiling  points  ranging  from  320  deg.  fahr.  to  perhaps 
1,000  deg.  fahr.  The  low  boiling  constituents  of  petroleum, 
when  separated  from  the  others  by  distillation,  compose  the 
various  grades  of  gasolines.  Higher  boiling  portions  consti- 
tute the  various  grades  of  burning  oils,  paraffin,  etc.  Inas- 
much as  the  temperature  of  the  gas  in  the  earth  is  nearer  the 
boiling  points  of  the  gasoline  constituents  of  the  petroleum, 
these  are  taken  up  in  much  larger  amounts  than  any  other 
portions. 

If  the  well  is  under  vacuum  the  boiling  points  of  the 
various  portions  are  lowered.  Thus  the  temperature  of  the 
natural  gas  is  still  nearer  the  boiling  points  of  the  gasoline 
portions  and  greater  evaporation  takes  place.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  gas  is  present  in  the  weh  under  high  pressure, 
this  pressure  on  the  petroleum  raises  the  boiling  points. 
The  temperature  of  the  gas  is  far  from  the  boiling  points  of 
even  the  gasoline  constituents  and  consequently  vaporiza- 
tion is  small.    This  is  exactly  what  we  find  in  practice.  From 

526 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

petroleum  and  ^as  of  the  same  character,  the  gas  from  a  well 
under  vacuum  is  richer  in  gasoline  vapor  than  that  from  a 
well  under  pressure. 

When  we  have  a  mixture  of  gases  exerting  a  certain  total 
pressure,  each  individual  constituent  of  the  mixture  exerts 
that  fraction  of  the  total  pressure.  For  example,  air  is  rough- 
ly one-fifth  oxygen  and  four-fifths  nitrogen.  Of  the  ordinary 
atmospheric  pressure  of  fifteen  pounds,  oxygen  is  exerting 
one-fifth  or  three  pounds  while  the  nitrogen  is  exerting  four- 
fifths  or  twelve  pounds.  If  w^e  fill  a  cylinder  or  any  other 
vessel  with  air,  we  would  find  exactly  the  same  ratio  of 
oxygen  to  nitrogen  in  all  parts  of  the  vessel.  That  is,  the 
oxygen  and  nitrogen  are  each  present  in  all  parts  of  the  vessel. 
Each  cubic  inch  of  the  vessel  would  contain  0.07  grains  of 
oxygen  and  0.25  grains  of  nitrogen.  This  corresponds  to  one- 
fifth  of  a  cubic  inch  of  oxygen  and  four-fifths  of  a  cubic  inch 
of  nitrogen,  if  both  gases  are  under  a  pressure  of  fifteen 
pounds.  From  five  cubic  feet  of  air  w^e  could  therefore 
obtain  one  cubic  foot  of  oxygen  and  four  cubic  feet  of  nitrogen, 
if  all  these  were  under  fifteen  pounds  pressure.  From  the  law 
of  gas  volume  in  relation  to  pressure,  if  we  transfer  the  one 
cubic  foot  of  oxygen  at  fifteen  pounds  to  a  five-cubic-foot 
cylinder,  the  pressure  in  this  cylinder  w^ould  be  three  pounds. 
This  is  one-fifth  of  fifteen  pounds.  Similarly  the  four  cubic 
feet  of  nitrogen  would  exert  twelve  pounds  pressure  if  trans- 
ferred to  a  five-cubic-foot  cylinder.  Now  suppose  the  five 
cubic  feet  of  oxygen  at  three  pounds  to  be  added  to  the  five 
cubic  feet  of  nitrogen  at  twelve  pounds.  Suppose  also  that 
the  space  occupied  by  the  mixture  be  restricted  to  five  cubic 
feet.  The  pressure  must  necessarily  be  the  sum  of  three 
pounds  and  twelve  pounds,  or  fifteen  pounds. 

In  order  to  condense  vapor,  pressure  must  be  exerted 
upon  it  or  it  must  be  cooled.  If  we  wish  to  condense  it  by 
pressure  alone,  we  must  exert  a  pressure  equal  to  the  pressure 
of  the  vapor  when  the  liquid  is  boiling  at  the  temperature  of 

527 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

the  experiment.  But  if  the  vapor  is  present  in  mixture  with 
another  gaseous  substance,  only  a  portion  of  the  total  pres- 
sure is  being  exerted  on  the  vapor.  If  the  vapor  constitutes 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  mixture,  the  pressure  on  the  vapor  is  ten 
per  cent,  of  the  pressure  on  the  mixture.  In  such  a  case  we 
would  need  150  pounds  pressure  on  the  mixture  to  have 
fifteen  pounds  on  the  vapor.  With  the  pressure  of  fifteen 
pounds  on  the  vapor,  this  would  condense  to  a  liquid  at  the 
temperature  at  which  the  hquid  would  normally  boil. 

Commercial  cymogene  is  mainly  butane  which  boils  at 
34  deg.  fahr.  That  is,  at  34  deg.  fahr.  butane  vapor  exerts 
a  pressure  of  fifteen  pounds.  To  condense  butane  vapor  at 
34  deg.  fahr.  to  a  liquid  by  the  application  of  pressure,  we 
would  need  fifteen  pounds  per  square  inch.  If  the  butane 
constituted  twenty  per  cent,  of  a  mixture,  we  would  need  a 
total  pressure  of  seventy-five  pounds  in  order  to  have  fifteen 
pounds  on  the  butane  vapor.  If  the  butane  were  ten  per 
cent,  of  the  mixture,  a  total  pressure  of  150  pounds  would  be 
necessary.  With  five  per  cent,  of  butane,  a  pressure  of  300 
pounds  would  be  needed.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  why  one 
gas  may  produce  gasoline  with  75  to  100  pounds,  while 
another  gas  will  need  250  to  300  pounds  to  produce  the  same 
quality  of  gasoline. 

Butane  is  either  liquid  or  gas  as  temperature  and  pressure 
conditions  may  demand.  As  a  gas  it  weighs  almost  exactly 
twice  as  much  as  the  same  volume  of  air.  As  a  liquid,  it 
weighs  almost  exactly  (a  little  over)  five  pounds  per  gallon. 
Air  weighs  at  sea  level  pressure  and  zero  fahr.  temperature 
86  pounds  per  thousand  cubic  feet.  A  thousand  feet  of  bu- 
tane would  produce  about  thirty-four  gallons  of  gasoline. 
Then  when  the  specific  gravity  of  a  gas  runs  up  in  the 
neighborhood  of  one-and-a-half  as  referred  to  air,  we  may 
easily  suspect  that  more  than  three-and-one-half  gallons  of 
condensate  can  be  recovered  from  it." 


528 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


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CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

Analysis   of   Natural   Gas   for   Gasoline    Content.  (By 

R.  A.  Bastress,  Chemist) — "One  of  the  initial  steps  taken 
to  distinguish  a  "wet"  gas  from  a  "dry"  gas  was  to  find  a 
suitable  solvent  in  which  the  heavier  hydro-carbons  of  a 
"wet"  gas  were  soluble  and  in  which  the  lighter  hydro- 
carbons of  a  "dry"  gas  were  insoluble.  Various  solvents 
were  tried  with  more  or  less  success.  After  many  experi- 
ments it  was  found  to  be  expedient  to  use  claroline  oil,  due 
to  its  uniformity  and  stability.  Other  solvents  tried  were 
alcohol,  kerosene,  olive  oil  and  lubricating  oils. 

Claroline  oil  is  a  mineral  oil  bought  under  the  trade 
name  of  glycerine  vitae.  It  has  the  following  characteris- 
tics: (a) 

vSpecific  gravity  equals  .8667  at  15°  C. 

Viscosity  equals  4.4°  Engler  at  20°  C 

Flash  point  equals  152°  C.  Pensky-Mar- 
tens  closed  test. 

Ignition  point  equals  270°  C.  Pensky-Mar- 
tens  closed  test. 

(a)  The  solubility  of  pure  methane  in  claroline  oil  was 
found  to  be  11.0  per  cent. 

The  absorption  of  gasoline  producing  gases  has  been 
found  to  range  from  25  to  92  per  cent.  Pure  gasoline  vapor 
was  found  to  be  completely  soluble. 

A  cut  of  a  field  analysis  case  is  shown.  It  is  identical 
with  the  one  used  in  laboratory  for  absorption  of  hydro- 
carbons, except  that  it  is  shown  in  portable  case. 

The  following  procedure  is  carried  on  in  the  absorption 
analysis : 

One  of  the  burettes  is  filled  with  water  and  is  a  measur- 
ing tube.  A  sample  of  gas  to  be  tested  is  taken  into  this  tube 
(about  80  c.  c.)  and  the  exact  volume  noted;  it  is  then  forced 
into  the  other  burette  containing  claroline  oil,  by  raising  and 
lowering   respective   lev^eling   bottles.      This   burette   is   the 

(a)   From  Government  Publication    Bulletin  88,  page  34:. 

534 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Fig.  223— FIELD  APPARATUS  FOR  ANALYZING 
GASOLINE  GAS 


absorption  tube.  It  is  now  placed  in  cold  water  and  agitated 
at  regular  inter\^als.  The  leveling  bottles  are  placed  in  a 
position  higher  than  the  tube,  and  contain  a  surplus  of  oil, 
which  replaces  the  gas  as  it  is  absorbed.  After  thirty  minutes 
the  gas  is  run  back  into  measuring  tube  and  decrease  in 
volume  noted  and  taken  as  absorption.  As  a  precaution 
the  gas  should  be  again  placed  in  the  oil  absorption  tube  and 
further  agitated  and  cooled  and  again  measured,  observing 
whether  any  further  absorption  takes  place.  The  two  con- 
secutive readings  should  check.  If  not,  further  absorption 
should  be  permitted.  Experiments  have  shown  that  by 
agitating  at  three  minute  intervals  for  thirty  minutes,  com- 
plete absorption  is  effected.     It  is  important  that  the  same 

535 


CONDENSATION      OF     GASOLINE     FROM     NATURAL     GAS 

conditions  exist  to  get  check  results,  that  is,  temperature, 
size  of  sample  and  agitation. 

Example : 

80 . 5  c  c  equals  Sample  of  gas 

40.2  cc      "      Residue  gas 

40.3  cc      "      Absorbed 
40.3 


80.5 


X  100  equals  50.00%  absorption. 


By  use  of  modified  Orsat's  apparatus,  impurities  such  as 
CO2,  air  and  No  are  determined,  and  combustion  analysis 
made. 

CO2  is  determined  by  absorption  in  Potassium  hy- 
droxide contained  in  one  of  the  glass  bulbs  the  same  as  the 
oil  absorption,  excepting  that  cooling  or  agitation  is  not 
necessary  and  complete  absorption  takes  place  in  five 
minutes. 

O2  is  determined  in  the  same  manner,  except  that  alka- 
line pyrogallate  is  the  solvent  used. 

By  means  of  combustion  of  gas  with  pure  O2,  from 
which  contraction  and  CO2  are  obtained,  we  are  able  to 
make  comparison  with  contraction  and  CO2  of  pure  hydro- 
carbons, methane,  ethane,  etc.  From  this  combustion  data 
we  are  also  able  to  calculate  empirical  formula  of  the  gas,  as 
CxHy. 

Nitrogen  is  determined  by  the  difference  after  exploding 
a  mixture  of  gas  and  pure  O2  and  absorbing  the  products  of 
combustion  and  excess  O2. 

Along  with  given  analysis  the  gravity  is  determined  by 
the  effusion  method  in  a  Schilling's  specific  gravity  apparatus. 
See  page  85. 

Following  are  some  analyses  of  gases  from  different 
fields  with  gasoline  content  estimated: 


536 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


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537 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  analysis  scheme  is  a  compara- 
tive one,  using  as  standards,  gases  in  which  the  gasoline 
content  has  been  determined  by  actual  operation,  the  success 
of  which  rests  in  the  amount  of  experience  the  analyst  has 
had  to  familiarize  him  with  important  characteristics  of 
gases. 

To  make  an  analysis  which  would  show  the  exact 
amount  of  gasoline  vapor  contained  in  a  gas  would  require 
a  separation  and  determination  of  each  h3^dro-carbon.  This 
would  be  possible  by  fractionating  at  very  low  temperatures, 
but  would  be  a  very  long  and  expensive  operation,  making 
it  impractical  in  a  commercial  laboratory,  where  speed  and 
expense  must  be  considered." 

Use  of  Alcohol  as  a  Solvent — The  Bureau  of  Mines  has 
used  ethyl  alcohol  in  much  the  same  manner  that  claroline 
oil  is  used  for  testing  natural  gas.  Instead  of  35  c.  c.  of  the 
claroline  oil,  50  c.  c.  of  ethyl  alcohol  may  be  used.  The 
proceedure  otherwise  is  exactly  the  same.  The  results  ob- 
tained with  alcohol  are  similar  to  those  with  claroline  oil. 

Orsat  Apparatus  for  Determination  of  Carbon  Dioxide 
and  Oxygen  (Bureau  of  Mines — Bulletin  No.  88) — In  figure 
224  is  shown  an  Orsat  apparatus  for  the  determination  of 
carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen  in  natural  gas.  The  Orsat 
apparatus  is  so  well  known  that  it  needs  little  description. 
It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  burette  has  a  capacity  of 
100  c.  c.  The  pipette  b  contains  caustic  potash  solution 
for  the  removal  of  carbon  dioxide,  and  the  pipette  a  con- 
tains alkaline  pyrogallate  solution  for  the  removal  of  oxygen. 
The  figure  (Fig.  224)  shows  the  level  bottle  of  the  burette, 
the  water  jacket,  and  a  three-way  stopcock,  c.  This  ap- 
paratus may  be  used  to  advantage  for  examining  natural 
gases  to  determine  whether  air  has  leaked  into  mains,  owing 
to  the  reduced  pressures  that  are  maintained  in  pipe  lines  at 
some  gasoline  plants." 

538 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Theoret- 
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16.72 
23.92 
31.10 

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1.3567 
1.9660 
2.594 

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539 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Fig.  2^4— ORSAT  APPARATUS  FOR  DETERMINING  CARBON  DIOXIDE 
AND  OXYGEN  IN  NATURAL  GAS 


Specific  Gravity  Outfit — The  specific  gravity  outfit  is  a 
particular  advantage  to  the  operator  in  determining  whether 
the  gas  from  any  one  lease  or  well  is  of  proper  density  to 
carry  a  sufficient  amount  of  hydrocarbons  to  warrant  having 
an  analysis  or  test  made. 

By  making  a  gravity  test  the  density  of  the  gas  can  be 
accurately  determined.  If  in  testing  the  gravity  of  a  certain 
gas  it  is  found  to  be  near  .6  which  is  the  gravity  of  natural 
gas — to  proceed  further  and  have  an  analysis  made  would  be 
useless.  However,  if  the  gravity  proved  to  be  .80  or  greater 
(air  =  l)   there  would  be  little  doubt  of  the  gas  carrying 

540 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

enough  hydrocarbons  to  make  it  profitable  to  compress  and 
refrigerate. 

If  the  gas  proved  to  have  a  gravity  of  .80  or  better  than 
.80  it  would  be  advisable  to  send  a  sample  of  the  gas  to  some 
well  known  chemist  or  laboratory  for  analysis  or  better  still 
to  install  a  small  portable  compressor  and  cooling  system 
to  make  a  practical  test  to  determine  the  actual  amount 
and  gravity  of  the  gasoline  extracted. 

Because  the  gas  is  heavy  it  does  not  necessarily  follow 
that  it  will  yield  gasoline  in  paying  quantities. 

P^'uU  instructions  for  using  specific  gravity  outfit  is  given 
on  page  85. 

Interpretation  of  Results  of  Tests  (from  Bulletin  Xo.  88 
Bureau  of  Mines) — "Many  experiments  have  shown  that 
gasoline  may  be  obtained  from  natural  gas  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  0.80  and  higher  (air  =  l).  Some  inconsistencies 
have  been  noted,  however,  so  that  the  authors  would  hesitate 
to  recommend  the  installation  of  a  plant  to  handle  a  gas  that 
tests  showed  to  have  a  specific  gravity  as  low  as  0.80  or  to 
have  an  absorption  percentage  of  30.0  (Bureau  of  Mines 
test),  although  the  gas  might  be  all  right  for  the  purpose, 
especially  if  it  were  from  wells  in  a  field  where  other  gases  of 
low  specific  gravity  were  already  producing  gasoline.  The 
authors  do  believe,  however,  that  a  gas  with  a  tested  specific 
gravity  as  high  as  0.95  and  an  absorption  percentage  as  high 
as  40  might  warrant  an  installation. 

Natural  gases  differ  much  in  composition.  A  so-called 
'wet'  gas  might,  for  instance,  contain  a  very  large  proportion 
of  methane,  with  little  ethane,  propane,  or  butane,  but 
enough  of  the  gasoline  hydrocarbons  to  warrant  a  plant 
installation.  Such  a  gas  when  subjected  to  comparatively 
low  pressures  would  deposit  the  gasoline  vapors.  Another 
gas  of  the  same  specific  gravity  might  contain  a  compara- 
tively small  proportion  of  methane  and  ethane  and  a  large 
proportion  of  propane  and  butane,  but  not  enough  of  the 

541 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

gasoline  hydrocarbons  to  warrant  plant  installations.  There- 
in lies  the  reason  why  specific  gravity,  solubility,  or  com- 
bustion tests  can  not  always  be  relied  on. 

As  regards  a  natural  gas  of  low  specific  gravity  and  low 
absorption  percentage  (known  as  a  'lean'  gas),  the  safest 
recourse  is  to  test  by  means  of  a  portable  outfit  consisting  of 
a  gas  meter,  small  gas  engine,  compressor,  cooling  coils,  and 
receiver.  vSuch  an  outfit  can  be  hauled  from  place  to  place 
on  a  wagon.  This  method  is  in  all  cases  to  be  recommended 
as  having  distinct  advantages  over  laboratory  tests.  How- 
ever, it  is  true  that  tests  made  with  the  portable  outfit  may 
be  misleading  unless  in  charge  of  a  careful  and  experienced 
person. 

The  authors  have  also  used  a  small  stationary  outfit 
consisting  of  a  meter  with  a  capacity  of  15,000  cubic  feet  per 
24  hours,  a  small  compressor,  driven  by  a  steam  engine,  100- 
foot  cooling  coils  made  of  1-inch  pipe,  immersed  in  a  tank  of 
water,  and  a  storage  tank  5  feet  high  made  of  a  6-inch  piece 
of  pipe.  To  the  latter  was  attached  a  relief  valve  which 
could  be  set  to  operate  at  the  desired  pressure.  A  trap  was 
installed  between  the  compressor  and  the  cooling  coils  to 
catch  oil  that  was  sometimes  brought  from  the  wells  with  the 
gas.  A  glass  gauge  was  connected  to  the  storage  tank  to 
indicate  the  volume  of  condensate  produced. 

In  conducting  tests  of  a  gasoline  plant  the  plant  is  first 
operated  for  an  hour  or  two  to  insure  that  everything  is 
w^orking  well.  The  meter  and  oil  pressure  gauges  must  be 
in  good  order.  The  cooling  coils  should  dip  enough  to  drain 
readily  the  gasoline  into  the  storage  tank.  The  efficiency  of 
the  cooling  coils  can  be  ascertained  fairly  well  by  measuring 
the  temperature  at  different  places  in  the  water  of  the  tank. 
At  the  point  where  the  coil  enters  the  water  it  will  be  hot 
enough  to  warm  the  water  appreciably,  but  if  the  tank  is 
large  and  a  sufficient  length  of  pipe  for  cooling  purposes  is 
installed  the  warming  of  water  is  only  local. 

542 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM     NATURAL      GAS 


Compression  and  Liquefication  of  the  Constituents  of 
Natural  Gas  in  Plant  Operation— The  condensation  of  gaso- 
line from  natural  gas  is  essentially  a  physical  process.  If  any 
chemical  reactions  take  place,  they  are  slight  and  inap- 
preciable. The  authors  tested  residual  gases  from  10  different 
plant  operations  to  determine  whether  carbon  monoxide  or 
olefin  hydrocarbons  were  produced.  These  gases  with  others 
are  found  when  the  higher  paraffins  arc  decomposed  at  high 
temperatures  and  pressures  in  the  absence  of  air.  Neither 
carbon  monoxide  nor  olefin  hydrocarbons  were  found. 

Three  Commercial  Processes — At  present  three  pro- 
cesses for  the  extraction  of  gasoline  from  natural  gas  are  used 
commercially.  The  one  most  generally  used  involves  com- 
pressing the  gas  to  a  certain  pressure  and  subsequently 
cooling  it  by  means  of  water  or  air.  A  second  consists  in 
simply  cooling  the  gas  without  compression  by  means  of  a 
refrigerant,  such  as  liquid  ammonia,  evaporating  under 
reduced  pressure.    A  third  is  a  combination  of  the  other  two. 

RESULTS  OF  TESTS  OF  THE  GRADE  AND  QUANTITY 

OF    GASOLINE    PRODUCED    WHEN    CRUDE 

NATURAL    GAS    IS    SUBJECTED    TO 

DIFFERENT  PRESSURES 


Pressure 

Tempera- 
ture of 
cooling 
water 

Gravity  of 
gasoline 

Yield  of 

gasoline 

per  1,000 

cubic  feet 

of  gas 

Pounds  per  square  inch 
110 

10 
10 
10 

°B. 

Gallons 
1  8 

140 

190 

90 
94 

3.0 
4.5 

It  has  been  found  by  experiment  at  tiiis  pLuil  that 
pressures  of  140  to  150  pounds  per  square  inch  produced  the 
most  marketable  gasoline.  It  will  be  observed  that  a  |)res- 
sure  of  190  pounds  produced  more  gasoline.     The  extra  llo 

543 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

gallons,  however,  was  of  such  a  volatile  character  that  it 
only  escaped  into  the  atmosphere  upon  exposure  to  the  air; 
hence  high  pressures  at  this  plant  were  unnecessary.  Gaso- 
line could  be  obtained  by  the  application  of  pressures  as 
little  as  50  pounds  per  square  inch,  but  the  yield  was  small. 

As  natural  gas  is  of  different  character  in  many  dififerent 
sections  of  the  country  and  even  in  the  same  oil  field,  data 
obtained  at  one  plant  can  not  always  be  used  as  a  basis  for 
operating  other  plants — that  is,  as  far  as  the  pressures  that 
should  be  used  are  concerned.  Each  operator  should 
thoroughly  test  his  own  gas.  Different  pressures  should  be 
applied  and  the  quantity  and  character  of  the  gasoline, 
noted.  A  reliable  meter  for  measuring  the  gas  becomes 
indispensable.  If,  in  certain  plants  operating  to-day,  meters 
were  installed  and  a  series  of  tests  conducted  as  above  out- 
lined much  greater  efhciency  of  operation  could  be  attained. 
Other  apparatus  that  could  be  used  to  advantage  are  ther- 
mometers, graduated  vessels  for  measuring  the  gasoline, 
hydrometers  for  determining  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
gasoline,  and  gas-analysis  apparatus,  especially  an  apparatus 
for  detecting  air  leaks  in  pipes  through  analyses  of  the  gas 
for  oxygen." 

Air  in  Casing  Head  Gas — Incidents  have  been  known 
to  the  writer  where  the  analysis  of  casing  head  gas  from  oil 
leases  showed  as  much  as  55%  air  while  being  pumped 
under  minus  or  "vacuum"  pressure.  This  was  due  to  leaky 
casing  heads  or  faulty  fittings.  It  is  good  practice  to  have 
the  pipe  line  system  on  each  lease  or  group  of  leases  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  is  possible  to  put  a  pressure  test  on  same  and 
determine  the  leakage.  Invariably  a  pressure  test  will  show 
a  number  of  small  leaks  and  not  any  single  leaks  of  large 
size.     All  leaks  should  be  stopped. 

The  only  true  method  of  determining  the  amount  of 
air  in  casing  head  gas  from  any  one  lease  or  group  of  leases 
is  by  analyzing  the  gas  for  oxygen  with  what  is  known  as 
the  Orsat  Analyzing  Apparatus  fully  described  on  page  538. 

544 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

Orifice  Well  Tester  This  instrument  is  simple  in  con- 
struction, consisting  of  a  short  two  inch  nipple  with  pipe 
thread  on  one  end,  and  a  thin  plate  disc  on  the  other.  The 
disc  carries  a  one-inch  orifice  and  a  hose  connection  for 
taking  the  pressure.  It  is  specially  intended  for  testing 
small  gas  wells  and  '  'casing  head' '  gas  from  oil  wells.  As  a  rule 
the  flow  of  gas  from  an  oil  well  is  rather  small  and  it  is  not 
advisable  to  test  the  flow  of  the  well  with  a  pi  tot  tube  such 
as  is  used  in  testing  large  gas  wells.  In  using  the  orifice 
tester  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas 
in  order  to  obtain  the  flow^  The  majority  of  gasoline  com- 
panies possess  the  specific  gravity  apparatus. 

To  use  the  orifice  well  tester,  be- 
fore attaching  to  casing  head,  allow  well 
to  blow  into  atmosphere  until  the  head 
is  reduced  and  the  gas  reaches  its  nor- 
mal flow.  Then  attach  the  orifice 
tester  and  read  the  pressure  on  a 
syphon  gauge.  By  referring  to  the 
tables  on  pages  543-545,  the  flow  of 
the  well  will  be  found  opposite  the 
gauge  reading.  Capacities  for  various 
gravities  are  given  in  diiTerent  columns. 

The  orifice  in  the  instrument 
should  be  kept  dry  and  uninjured, 
otherwise  it  will  not  give  an  accurate 
reading  on  the  gauge. 

For  wells  making  a  volume  of  gas 
of  less  than  15,000  cubic  feet  per  24 
hours,  use  one  or  two  domestic  meters. 
By  this  method  it  is  not  necessary  to 
know^  the  specific  gravitv  to  obtain  the 

.        r    ,,        a   '  P'S.  ^^5~0RltlLE    WELL 

measurement  oi  the  now.  tester 


545 


CONDENSATION     OF     GASOLINE    FROM    NATURAL      GAS 


CAPACITIES,  IN  CUBIC  FEET,  PER  24  HOURS,  OF  A 

ONE-INCH  THIN  PLATE  ORIFICE. 

THICKNESS  OF  PLATE,  ig-INCH 

Used  in  Testing  Small  Gas  Wells  and  "Casing  Head"  Gas 
FROM  Oil  Wells. 

Specific  Gravities— .6  to  1.75. 
Temperature — 60°  fahr.  Atmospheric  pressure — 14.4. 


Pressure 

in  Inches 

.6 

.65 

.7 

.75 

.8 

.85 

Water. 

1 

26,440 

25,440 

24,500 

23,660 

22,920 

22,220 

2 

37,510 

36,040 

34,750 

33,600 

32,520 

31,530 

3 

46,440 

44,640 

43,000 

41,540 

40,240 

39,020 

4 

52,630 

50,590 

48,740 

47,060 

45,600 

44,200 

5 

57,880 

55,630 

53,610 

51,790 

50,160 

48,640 

6 

63,140 

60,720 

58,480 

56,490 

54,720 

53,060 

7 

68,110 

65,470 

63,090 

60,910 

59,040 

57,210 

8 

73,050 

70,220 

67,680 

65,350 

63,310 

61,390 

9 

77,680 

74,680 

72,000 

69,500 

67.340 

65,280 

10 

82.340 

79,150 

76,270 

73,650 

71,370 

69,190 

11 

86,680 

83,320 

80,300 

77,540 

75,120 

72,840 

12 

90,720 

87,190 

84,000 

81,140 

78,600 

76,220 

Mercury . 

Vi 

67,200 

64,600 

62,300 

60,100 

58,200 

56,500 

1 

95,200 

91,500 

88,200 

85,100 

82,500 

80,000 

IH 

116,600 

112,000 

108,000 

104,300 

101,000 

97,900 

2 

134,600 

129,400 

124,700 

120,400 

116,700 

113,100 

2J^ 

145,600 

139,900 

134,900 

130,200 

126,200 

122,400 

3 

164,900 

158,500 

152,700 

147,500 

142,900 

138,600 

^Yi 

178,200 

171,300 

165,100 

159,400 

154,500 

149,800 

4 

190,400 

183,000 

176,400 

170,300 

165,000 

160,000 

5 

212,900 

204,600 

197,200 

190,400 

184,500 

178,900 

6 

233,200 

224,100 

216,000 

208,600 

202,100 

195,900 

7 

251,900 

242,100 

233,400 

225,300 

218,300 

211,700 

8 

269,400 

258,900 

249,500 

240,900 

233,400 

226,400 

9 

285,700 

274,600 

264,700 

255,600 

247,600 

240,100 

10 

301,200 

289,500 

279,000 

269,400 

261,000 

253.100 

11 

315,800 

303,600 

292,500 

282,500 

273,700 

265,400 

12 

328,400 

315,700 

304,200 

293,800 

284,600 

276,000 

546 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


CAPACITIES,  IN  CUBIC  FEET,  PER  24  HOURS,  OF 
ONE-INCH  THIN  PLATE  ORIFICE. 
THICKNESS  OF  PLATE,   '  s-INCH 

L^SED  inTestinc.  Small  Gas  Wells  and  "Casixo  Head"  Gas 
FROM  Oil  Wells. 

Specific  Gravities — .6  to  1.75. 
Temperature— 60°  fahr.  Atmospheric  pressure — 14.4. 


Pressure 

in  Inches 

.9 

.95 

1. 

1.05 

1.1 

1.15 

Water. 

1 

21,600 

21,020 

20,520 

20,010 

19,560 

19,120 

2 

30,640 

29,800 

29,080 

28,360 

27,720 

27,120 

3 

37,940 

36,880 

36,000 

35,130 

34,320 

33.550 

4 

42,980 

41,800 

40,800 

39,790 

38,880 

38.040 

5 

47,280 

45,980 

44,880 

43,770 

42.760 

41.830 

6 

51,600 

50,180 

48,960 

47,760 

46,650 

45,640 

7 

55,630 

54,120 

52,800 

51,500 

50,320 

49,220 

8 

59,680 

58,050 

56,640 

55,240 

54,000 

52,800 

9 

63,480 

61,720 

60,240 

58,800 

57,430 

56.160 

10 

67,270 

65,420 

63,840 

62,280 

60,860 

59,520 

11 

70,800 

68,880 

67,200 

65.560 

64.080 

62.660 

12 

74,110 

72,000 

70,320 

68.610 

67.030 

65,560 

Mercury. 

Yi 

54,900 

53,400 

52,100 

50,800 

49,6C0 

48,600 

1 

77,800 

75,600 

73,800 

72,000 

70,300 

68.800 

1^ 

95,300 

92,600 

90,400 

88,200 

86,200 

84,300 

2 

110,000 

107,000 

104,400 

101,800 

99.500 

97,300 

23^ 

118,900 

115,700 

112,900 

110,100 

107,600 

105.300 

3 

134,700 

131,000 

127,800 

124,700 

121,800 

119,200 

33^ 

145,600 

141,600 

138,200 

134,800 

131,700 

128,800 

4 

155,600 

151,300 

147.600 

144,000 

140,700 

137.600 

5 

174,000 

169,200 

165,000 

161,000 

157,300 

153.900 

6 

190,500 

185,300 

180,800 

176,400 

172.300 

168,600 

7 

205,800 

200,200 

195,300 

190,600 

186,200 

182.100 

8 

220,100 

214,000 

208.800 

203,700 

199.100 

194.700 

9 

233,500 

227,000 

221,500 

216.100 

211,200 

206.500 

10 

246,100 

239,300 

233.500 

227,800 

222,600 

217.700 

11 

258,000 

250,900 

244.800 

238,900 

233,400 

228,300 

12 

268,400 

261,000 

254.600 

248.400 

242.700 

237.400 

54: 


CONDENSATION     OF    GASOLINE    FROM    NATURAL    GAS 


CAPACITIES,  IN  CUBIC  FEET,  PER  24  HOURS,  OF  A 

ONE-INCH  THIN  PLATE  ORIFICE. 

THICKNESS  OF  PLATE,  H-INCH 

Used  in  Testing  Small  Gas  Wells  and  "Casino  Head"  Gas 
FROM  Oil  Wells: 

Specific  Gravities — 6  to  1.75. 
Temperature — 60°  fahr.  Atmospheric  pressure — 14.4. 


Pressure 

in  Inches 

1.2 

1.3 

1.4 

1.5 

1.6 

1.7 

Water. 

1 

18,720 

18.000 

17,320 

16,750 

16,200 

15,720 

2 

26,540 

25,480 

24,570 

23,760 

22,990 

22,290 

3 

32,850 

31,560 

30,400 

29,370 

28,440 

27,600 

4 

37,220 

35,760 

34,460 

33,310 

32,230 

31,270 

5 

40,940 

39,360 

37,920 

36.620 

35,470 

34,410 

6 

44,680 

42,960 

41,370 

39,960 

38,680 

37,530 

7 

48,190 

46,320 

44,610 

43,100 

41,730 

40,480 

8 

51,690 

49,680 

47,850 

46,220 

44,760 

43,410 

9 

54,960 

52,800 

50,880 

49,170 

47,610 

46.200 

10 

58,240 

55,960 

53,920 

52,100 

50,440 

48,960 

11 

61,320 

58,920 

56,780 

54,860 

53,110 

51.520 

12 

64,170 

61,680 

59,400 

57,400 

55,580 

53,920 

Mercury. 

Yi 

47,500 

45,700 

44,000 

42,500 

41,100 

39,900 

1 

67,300 

64,700 

62,300 

60,200 

58,300 

56,600 

Wi 

82,500 

79,200 

76,300 

73,800 

71,400 

69,300 

2 

95,300 

91,500 

88,200 

85,200 

82,500 

80,000 

23^ 

103,000 

99,000 

95,400 

92.200 

89,200 

86,500 

3 

116,600 

112,000 

108,000 

104,300 

101,000 

98,000 

3M 

126,100 

121,200 

116,700 

112,800 

109,200 

105,900 

4 

134,700 

129,400 

124,700 

120,500 

116,600 

113,200 

5 

150,600 

144,700 

139,400 

134,700 

130,400 

126,500 

6 

165,000 

158,500 

152,700 

147.600 

142,900 

138,600 

7 

178,200 

171,200 

165,000 

159,400 

154.300 

149,700 

8 

190.600 

183,100 

176,400 

170,500 

165,000 

160,100 

9 

202,100 

194,200 

187.100 

180,800 

175,000 

169,800 

10 

213.100 

204,700 

197,300 

190,600 

I  184,500 

i  179,000 

11 

223,400 

214,700 

206,800 

199,900 

193,500 

187,700 

12 

232,400 

223,300 

215,100 

207,900 

201,200 

1  195,200 

548 


CONDENSATION  OF  GASOLINE  FROM  NATURAL  GAS 


Pipe  Line  Capacities  for  Gas  at  a  "Vacuum"  or  Minus 
Pressure.  Specific  Gravity  .6,  for  other  Specific 
Gravities  see  table,  page  560. 

Capacity  of  2"  Pipe  Line,  1  Mile  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressurk. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos-      Lb.  per 
phere.        sq.  in. 

0              3  lb. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"- 

10"— 

5" — 

10"— 

50,000 

38,000 

5"— 

66.000 

58,000 

43,000 

Atmos. 
0 

81,000 

75,000 

65,000 

48,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

100,000 

95,000 

87,000 

75.000 

58.000 

6 

119,000 

114,000 

108.000 

99.000 

86.000 

64,000 

10 

143,000 

139.000  1    134,000  I    127,000 

118,000 

102.000 

Capacity  of  2"  Pipe  Line,  2  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

DiscH.^RGE  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere 

0 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3  11). 

Minus 
Pressure. 

30"- 

15"—     i     10"—           5"— 

10"— 

35,000 

27,000 

5"— 

47.000 

41,000 
53.000 

31,000 
46,000 

Atmos. 
0 

58,000 

34.000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

71,000 

67,000 

62.000 

53.000 

41,000      

6 

84,000 

81.000 

76.000    i    70.000    1    61.000    1    45.000 

10 

101.000 

99.000        95.000        90,000        83,000        72,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .6  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  '^6'S. 


.349 


CONDENSATION     OF     GASOLINE    FROM    NATURAL    GAS 


Capacity  of  2"  Pipe  Line,  3  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
''Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

29,000 

22.000 

5"— 

38,000 

33,000 

25,000 

Atmos. 
0 

47,000 

43,000 

37,000 

28,000 



. 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

58,000 

55,000 

50,000 

44,000 

34,000 

6 

68,000 

66,000 

62,000 

57,000 

50,000 

37,000 

10 

83,000 

80.000 

77,000 

73,000 

68,000 

59,000 

Capacity  of  3"  Pipe  Line,  1  Mile  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"  — 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

138,000 

106,000 

183,000 

161,000 

121,000 

Atmos. 
0 

227,000 

209,000 

180,000 

134,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

279,000 

265,000 

243,000 

210,000 

162,000 

6 

331,000 

318,000 

300,000 

275,000 

240,000 

177,000 

10 

399,000 

389,000 

374,000 

354,000 

328,000 

285,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .6  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  563. 

550 


CONDENSATION     OF     GASOLINE    FROM    NATURAL    GAS 

Capacity  of  3"  Pipe  Line,  2  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  o 

f  Mercury 

—Minus  F 

ressure. 

Atmos- 
phere 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

98,000 

75,000 

5"— 

130,000 

114,000 

85.000 

Atmos. 
0 

161,000 

148,000 

127,000 

95,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

197,000 

187,000 

171,000 

149,000 

115.C00 

6 

234,000 

P25,000 

212,000 

194,000 

170,000 

125,000 

10 

282,000 

275,000 

264,000 

250,000 

232,000 

201,000 

Capacity  of  3"  Pipe  Line,  3  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure 

Inches  of 
Mercurv 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure, 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5" — 

3  lb. 

10"— 

80,000 

61,000 

5" 

106,000 

93,000 

70,000 

Atmos. 
0 

131,000 

121,000 

104,000 

77,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

161,000 

153,000 

140,000 

121,000 

94,000 

6 

191,000 

184,000 

173,000 

159,000 

139,000 

102,000 

10 

230,000 

224,000 

216,000 

204,000 

189,000 

164,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .0  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  50;i. 

551 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Capacity  of  3"  Pipe  Line,  4  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
''Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury- 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

69,000 

53,000 

5"— 

92,000 

80,000 

60,000 

Atmos. 
0 

114,000 

104,000 

90,000 

67,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

140,000 

132.000 

121.000 

105,000 

81,000 

6 

165,000 

159,000 

150,000 

138,000 

120,000 

89,000 

10 

199,000 

194,000 

187,000 

177,000 

164,000 

142,000 

Capacity  of  4"  Pipe  Line,  1  Mile  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

286,000 

219,000 

5"— 

379,000 

332,000 

249,000 

Atmos. 
0 

469,000 

432,000 

372,000 

276,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

577,000 

547,000 

501,000 

435,000 

336,000 

6 

683,000 

658,000 

621.000 

568,000 

497,000 

366,000 

10 

824,000 

803,000 

773,000 

731,000 

677,000 

588,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .6  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  .563. 

552 


CONDENSATION     OF    GASOLINE    FROM    NATURAL     GAS 


Capacity  of  4"  Pipe  Line,  2  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere 

0 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"- 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

202,000 

155,000 

5"— 

268,000 

235,000 

176,000 

Atmos. 
0 

332,000 

305,000 

263,000 

195,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

408,000 

387,000 

354,000 

308,000 

237,000 

6 

483,000 

465,000 

439,000 

402,000 

351,000 

259,000 

10 

582,000 

568,000 

546,000 

517,000 

479.000 

416.000 

Capacity  of  4"  Pipe  Line,  3  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury— Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"- 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

165,000 

126,000 

.    .    . 

5"— 

219,000 

192,000 

144,000 

Atmos. 
0 

271,000 

249,000 

215,000 

160,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

333,000 

316.000 

289,000 

251,000 

194,000 

6 

394,000 

380.000 

358.000 

328,000 

287.000 

211.000 

10 

476,000 

464,000 

446,000 

422.000 

391,000 

340,000 

These  Tables  are  leased  on  gas  of  .(>  specific  graxity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  fouiui  in  Tahlc.  page  r>(i;^. 

553 


CONDENSATION     OF    GASOLINE    FROM    NATURAL    GAS 


Capacity  of  4"  Pipe  Line,  4  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

143,000 

109,000 

5"— 

190,000 

166,000 

125,000 

Atmos. 
0 

235,000 

216,000 

186,000 

138,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

288,000 

273,000 

251,000 

217,000 

168,000 

6 

342,000 

329,000 

310,000 

284,000 

248,000 

183,000 

10 

412,000  '    402.000 

386,000 

366,000 

339,000 

294.000 

Capacity  of  4"  Pipe  Line,  5  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"- 

5" — 

3  lb. 

10"— 

128.000 

98,000 

5"— 

170,000 

148,000 

111,000 

Atmos. 
0 

210,000 

193,000 

166,000 

124,000 

Lb.  per 

so.  in. 

3 

258,000 

245,000 

224,000 

194,000 

149,000 

6 

306,000 

294,000 

278,000 

254,000 

222,000 

164,000 

10 

368,000 

359.000 

346.000 

327,000 

303,000 

263,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .6  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  appl^'  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  563. 

554 


CONDENSATION    OF    GASOLINE     FROM     NATURAL    GAS 


Capacity  of  6"  Pipe  Line,  1  Mile  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"  - 

796,000 

610,000 

5" — 

1,056,000 

924.000 

695,000 

Atmos. 
0 

1,307,000 

1.203,000 

1.037,000 

770,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

1,607,000 

1,524,000 

1,396,000 

1,211,000 

935,000 

6 

1,904,000 

1,834,000 

1,729,000 

1,584,000 

1,384,000 

1,020.000 

10 

2.295.000 

2,237.000'  2,1.52.000 

2.037,000 

1.886.000'  1.638.000 

Capacity  of  6"  Pipe  Line,  2  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
''Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"- 

5" — 

3  11). 

10"— 

563,000 

431,000 

5"— 

747,000 

654,000 

491,000 

Atmos. 
0 

924,000 

851,000 

733,000 

661,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

1,137,000 

1,078,000 

987,000 

857,000 

659.000 

6 

1,346.000 

1,297,000 

1.223.000 

1,120.000 

978.000 

721.000 

10 

1,623,000 

1,582.000 

1.522,000 

1.441.000 

1.334.000 

1.158.000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .6  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  o63. 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Capacity  of  6"  Pipe  Line,  3  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

459,000       352.000 

5"— 

610,000 

534,000 

401.000 

Atmos. 
0 

755,000 

695,000 

599,000 

445,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 
3 

928,000 

880,000 

806,000 

699.000 

540,000 

6 

1,099,000 

1,059,000 

998,000 

914,000 

799,000 

589,000 

10 

1,325,000 

1.292.000 

1,243,000'  1,176,000 

1,089,000 

946,000 

Capacity  of  6"  Pipe  Line,  4  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5" — 

3  lb. 

10"— 

398.000 

305,000 

5"— 

528,000 

462,000 

347,000 

Atmos. 
0 

654,000 

602,000 

518,000 

385,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

804,000 

762,000 

698,000 

606,000 

468,000 

6 

952,000 

917,000 

865,000 

792,000 

692,000 

510,000 

10 

1,147,000 

1,119.000 

1,076,000 

1,019,000 

943.000 

819,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .6  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  563. 

556 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Capacity  of  6"  Pipe  Line,  5  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

1 
15"—     1     10"— 

5"— 

0 

3  lb. 

10" 

356  000       273.000 

5"— 

473,000 

413,000 

311,000 

Atmos. 
0 

585,000      538.000 

464,000 

344,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 
3 

719.000      681,000 

625.000 

542.000 

415.000 

6 

851,000 

820,000 

773,000 

708,000 

619,000 

456.000 

10 

1,026,000   1.000,000      963,000      911,000      844,000      732,000 

Capacity  of  6"  Pipe  Line,  6  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

325,000 

249.000 

5"— 

431.000 

377,000 

284,000 

Atmos. 
0 

534,000 

491,000 

423,000 

314.000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

656.000 

622.000 

570,000 

495,000 

382.000 

6 

777.000 

749,000 

706,000 

644,000 

565.000 

416.000 

10 

937.000 

913,000 

879.000       832.000 

770.000 

669.000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of    ii  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  o03. 

557 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Capacity  of  6"  Pipe  Line,  8  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
''Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

281 ,000 

216,000 

5"— 

373,000 

327,000 

246,000 

Atmos. 
0 

462,000 

425,000 

367,000 

272,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

568,000 

539,000 

494,000 

428,000 

331,000 

6 

673,000 

648,000 

611,000 

560,000 

489,000 

360,000 

10 

811,000 

791,000 

761,000 

720,000 

667,000 

579,000 

Capacity  of  6''  Pipe  Line,  10  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury— Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

252,000 
334,000 

193,000 

5"— 

292,000 

220,000 

Atmos. 
0 

413,000 

380,000 

328,000 

243,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

508.000 

482,000 

442,000 

383,000 

296,000 

. 

6 

602,000 

580,000 

547,000 

501,000 

438,000 

322,000 

10 

726,000 

707,000 

681,000 

644,000 

596,000 

518,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .6  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  563. 

558 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Capacity  of  8"  Pipe  Line,  1  Mile  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minns 
I^ressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

1,659,000  1.271.000 

5"— 

2,202,000 

1,927,000 

1,448,000 

Atmos. 
0 

2.725,000 

2.507.000 

2,161,000 

1,605,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

3,350,000 

3.176,000 

2,910,000 

2,525,000 

1,949,000 



6 

3,967,000 

3,822,000 

3,604.000 

3,300,000 

2,884,000 

2,125,000 

10 

4.783,000 

4,663,000 

4.486,000 

4,246.000  3,931,000  3,144,000 

Capacity  of  8"  Pipe  Line,  2  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
**Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

IVIinus 
Pressure. 

20"- 

15"— 

10"— 

5" — 

0         '      3  lb. 

10"— 

1,173,000 

899,000 

5"— 

1,557,000 

1,362,000 

1,024,000 

Atmos. 
0 

1,927,000 

1,773,000 

1,528,000 

1,135,000 

Lb.  iK-r 

sq.  in. 

3 

2,369,000 

2,246,000 

2,058,000 

1.786,000 

1,378,000 

6 

2,805,000 

2,702,000 

2.548.000 

2.334.000 

2.039.000 

1,503,000 

10 

3.382.000 

3.297,000 

3,172.000 

3.003.000 

2,780.000  2,414,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .()  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  oG;i. 

559 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Capacity  of  8"  Pipe  Line,  3  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
''Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

958,000 

734,000 

5"— 

1,271,000 

1,112,000 

836,000 

Atmos. 
0 

1,573,000 

1,448,000 

1,248,000 

927.000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

1,934,000 

1,834,000 

1,679,000 

1,458,000 

1,125,000 

6 

2,291,000 

2,206,000 

2,081,000 

1,905,000 

1,665,000 

1,227,000 

10 

2,762,000 

2,692,000 

2,. 590, 000 

2,452,000 

2,270,000 

1,971,000 

Capacity  of  8"  Pipe  Line,  4  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5" — 

3  lb. 

10"— 

829,000 

636,000 

5"— 

1,101,000 

963,000 

724,000 

Atmos. 
0 

1,362,000 

1,254,000 

1,081,000 

802,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

1,675,000 

1,588,000 

1,455,000 

1,262,000 

975,000 

6 

1,984,000 

1,911,000 

1,802,000 

1,650,000 

1,442,000 

1,063,000 

10 

2,392,000 

2,331,000 

2.243,000 

2,123,000 

1,966,000 

1,707,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .()  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apph'  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  5G.3. 

560 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Capacity  of  8"  Pipe  Line,  5  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"- 

15" 

10"—     '      5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

742.000      .ofiS  000 

5"— 

985,000 

862,000 

647,000 

Atmos. 
0 

1,218,000 

1,121,000 

967,000 

718,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 
3 

L498,000 

1,420,000 

1,302.000 

1,129,000 

865,000 

6 

1,774,000 

1,709,000 

1,612,000 

1,476,000 

1,290,000 

950,000 

10 

2,139,000 

2,085,000 

2,006,000 

1,899,000 

1,758,000 

1,525,000 

Capacity  of  8"  Pipe  Line,  6  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Merciiry 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"    - 

677,000 

519,000 

5"— 

899,000 

786,000 

591.000 

Atmos. 
0 

1,112,000 

1,024,000 

882.000 

6.55.000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

1,367,000 

1,297.000 

1.188,000 

1,031,000 

796.000 

6 

1.620,000 

1,560.000 

1,471.000 

1.341,000 

1.178.000 

868,000 

10 

1,9.53,000 

1,904,000   1,832,000   1,734,000   1,605,000 

1,394,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .(i  specific  i^ravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apply  multiplier  found  in  Table.  i>age    oiV.i. 

561 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Capacity  of  8"  Pipe  Line,  8  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

586,000 

449,000 



5"— 

778,000 

681,000 

512,000 

Atmos. 
0 

963,000 

886,000 

764,000 

567,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

1.184,000 

1,123,000 

1,029,000 

893,000 

689,000 

6 

1,403,000 

1,351,000 

1,274,000 

1,167,000 

1,020,000 

751,000 

10 

1,691,000 

1,649,000 

1,586,000 

1,501,000 

1,390,000 

1,207,000 

Capacity  of  8"  Pipe  Line,  10  Miles  Long,  for  24  Hours  at 
"Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure. 


Intake 
Pressure. 

Discharge  Pressure. 

Inches  of 
Mercury 

Inches  of  Mercury — Minus  Pressure. 

Atmos- 
phere. 

0 

Lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Minus 
Pressure. 

20"— 

15"— 

10"— 

5"— 

3  lb. 

10"— 

524,000 

402,000 

5"— 

696,000 

609,000 

458,000 

Atmos. 
0 

862,000 

793,000 

683,000 

507,000 

Lb.  per 

sq.  in. 

3 

1,059,000 

1,004,000 

920,000 

798,000 

616,000 

6 

1,255,000 

1,208,000 

1,140,000 

1,044,000 

912,000 

672,000 

10 

1.513,000 

1,475,000 

1,419,000 

1,343,000 

1,243,000 

1.080,000 

These  Tables  are  based  on  gas  of  .6  specific  gravity. 

For  other  specific  gravities,  apph'  multiplier  found  in  Table,  page  ,563. 

562 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

Multipliers  to  be  Used  for  Gas  of  Specific  Gravities  Other 

than  .6. 


.6 

1.00 

1.20 

.707 

.65 

.96 

1  25 

.692 

.7 

.925 

1.30 

.679 

.75 

.894 

1.35 

.666 

.8 

.866 

1.40 

.654 

.85 

.84 

1.45 

.643 

.9 

.816 

1.50 

.632 

.95 

.794 

1.55 

.622 

1.0 

.774 

1.60 

.612 

1.05 

.755 

1.65 

.603 

1.10 

.738 

1.70 

.594 

1.15 

722 

1  75 

.585 

Measuring  Gasoline  Gas — When  gasoline  gas  is  pur- 
chased by  the  cubic  foot  it  is  necessary  to  provide  some 
means  of  securing  an  accurate  measurement  of  it.  A  large 
capacity  dry  meter  is  built  for  this  character  of  work 
whether  the  gas  measured  is  under  pressure  or  at  a  minus 
pressure  commonly  spoken  of  as  a  "vacuum." 

It  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the  meter  clean  and  note  the 
condition  of  the  diaphragms  from  time  to  time.  The  heavy 
gas  has  a  tendency  to  dry  out  the  leather  diaphragm  quicker 
than  in  measuring  any  other  kind  of  gas. 

If  the  gas  is  at  a  minus  pressure  the  recording  volume  and 
vacuum  gauges  are  necessary. 

In  installing  meters  for  this  work  it  is  essential  to  set  the 
meter    far    enough  away  from  the  compressor  so   that    the 

563 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


Fig.  2m— A    LARGE  CAPACITY   METER  SPECIALLY  BUILT 
TO  MEASURE  GASOLINE  GAS 


suction  of  the  piston  will  not  be  felt  in  the  meter.  This  can 
be  done  by  utilizing  a  series  of  large  pipe  coils  directly  ad- 
joining the  compressor  building  between  the  compressor  and 
the  meter  without  creating  any  appreciable  increased  friction 
due  to  additional  pipe.  The  greater  the  area  of  the  pipe  the 
less  will  be  the  number  of  coils  necessary  to  overcome  the 
vibration  in  the  meter.  To  determine  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  vibration,  attach  a  mercury  or  spring  gauge  to  the 
meter  and  if  the  mercury  or  gauge  hand  vibrates  the  effects 
of  the  piston  in  the  compressor  have  not  been  eliminated. 
In  this  case,  either  place  the  meter  further  from  the  station 
or  increase  the  coils. 

564 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

All  gas  lines  leading  to  the  compressor  should  be  buried. 
If  possible  lay  through  wet  ground  or  creeks.  This  method 
assists  in  preventing  condensation  of  gasoline  in  lines  before 
it  passes  through  compressor,  where  provision  is  made  for 
trapping  it. 


fc=t 


TEC   rO/7  TC^TJNG   tV/TH 


Fig. 


-INSTALLATIOX   OF   A    I.ARGF  CAPACIIA'   MFTFR 
FOR  MEASL'RIXG  GASOLIXE  GAS 


Table  to  Determine  the  Proper  Size  Meter  in  Measuring 
Gas  at  a  "Vacuum"  or  Minus  Pressure,  in  Inches  of 
Mercury,  where  the  Maximum  Volume  per  24  Hours 
or  per  Hour  is  Given  at  Four  Ounces  Pressure  Above 
an  Atmospheric  Pressure  of  14.4  Lb.  per  Square  Inch. 


Capacity 

i  OF  Met 

ERs  AT  Different 

Maximum 
Volume 

Maximum 
Volume 

Pressures  in  Ci 

T.  Ft.  pek 

Hour 

Per  24  Hours 

per  Hour 

5" 

10" 

15" 

20" 

50,000 

2,080 

3M 

3M 

6M 

lOM 

100,000 

4,160 

6M 

lOM 

lOM 

20M 

150,000 

6.250 

lOM 

lOM 

20M 

20M 

200,000 

8.330 

lOM 

20M 

20M 

35M 

250,000 

10,410 

20M 

20M 

20M 

35M 

300,000 

12,500 

20M 

20M 

35M 

50M 

400,000 

16.660 

20M 

35M 

35M 

50M 

500,000 

20.830 

35M 

35M 

dOU 

75M 

600,000 

25,000 

35M 

50M 

50M 

75M 

800,000 

33,330 

50M 

50M 

75M 

lOOM 

1.000,000 

41,660 

50M 

75M 

lOOM 

125M 

1.500.000 

62.500 

75M 

lOOM 

125M 

*200M 

2,000,000 

83.300 

lOOM 

125M 

*200M 

*275M 

*Meaus  use  two  or  more  meters  in  battery  form. 
565 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

Volume  and  Pressure  Recording  Gauge— This  type  of 
gauge  is  fully  described  and  illustrated,  see  figure  number  153 
on  page  number  383.  It  is  of  great  assistance  in  measuring 
gasoline  gas  at  various  plus  or  minus  pressures. 


Fig.  228— VOLUME  AND  PRESSURE  RECORDING  GAUGE  CHART 


One  great  advantage  in  the  use  of  a  pressure  and  volume 
recording  gauge  when  used  on  a  large  capacity  meter  in 
measuring  gasoline  gas  is  fully  illustrated  in  the  cut 
number  228. 

In  this  instance  the  meter  was  installed  on  a  six-inch 
line  leading  from  an  oil  lease  to  the  main  compressor  station 

566 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

The  compressor  was  using  residue  gas  for  fuel  and  during  the 
morning  of  the  28th  (the  chart  was  removed  on  the  29th) 
the  engineer  noticed  that  the  engine  was  "getting  air."  On 
visiting  the  nearby  meters  the  source  of  trouble  was  soon 
located  and  remedied.  It  was  discovered  that  the  line  on 
which  this  meter  and  gauge  were  located  had  been  broken 
and  the  compressor  was  "getting  air"  through  this  meter. 
The  pressure  on  the  oil  wells  at  the  end  of  this  line  was  about 
12  inches  mercury  minus  pressure  or  vacuum  when  being 
pumped,  and  as  the  atmosphere  w^as  about  29.5  inches  mer- 
cury pressure  naturally  this  higher  pressure  caused  the  meter 
readings  to  jump  up  and  the  compressor  to  pump  more  air 
than  it  did  gas  at  the  lower  pressure  through  this  line. 

As  each  dash  on  the  chart  indicated  a  volume  of  10,000 
cubic  feet,  approximately  160,000  cubic  feet  of  air  meter 
reading  had  passed  the  meter  which  without  the  pressure 
and  volume  recording  gauge  would  have  been  paid  for  at 
five  cents  per  thousand.  With  this  type  of  gauge  the  gasoline 
company  could  show  just  when  the  break  occurred,  when  it 
was  repaired  and  how  much  meter  reading  should  be  de- 
ducted in  making  settlement  for  gasoline  gas  at  the  end  of 
the  month  from  that  particular  lease. 

Condensation  in  Meters — As  gasoline  gas  is  a  com- 
bination of  natural  gas  and  higher  hydrocarbons  in  a  gaseous 
state,  all  that  is  needed  to  cause  condensation  is  that  the 
temperature  of  the  flowing  gas  be  lower  than  the  temperature 
of  the  metal  that  confmes  it.  As  gas  flows  through  a  pipe 
line  it  has  the  tendency  of  giving  or  taking  the  same  tem- 
perature as  the  pipe  line.  But  as  it  enters  a  meter  or  drip 
the  velocity  of  gas  decreases,  due  to  the  enlarged  size  of  same 
and  as  the  meters  or  drips  are  generally  above  the  ground 
there  is  greater  opportunity  for  condensation  of  higher  hydro- 
carbons than  in  a  pipe  line.  The  fact  is  where  a  pipe  line  is 
buried  and  the  meter  exposed  in  the  open,  the  meter  acts, 
in  cold  weather,  as  a  cooler  or  radiator  to  the  gas.     This 

567 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

condition  often  causes  considerable  condensation  which 
interferes  with  the  accuracy  of  the  meter  unless  precautions 
are  taken. 

To  overcome  this  there  are  two  remedies.  One  is  to 
place  a  torch  or  heater  back  of  the  inlet  of  the  meter  (at  a 
safe  distance)  and  to  warm  the  gas  enough  so  that  the  meter 
will  also  have  a  warm  temperature.  The  other  is  to  cover  the 
line  and  meter  with  manure  which  will  give  the  meter  the 
same  temperature  as  the  pipe  line. 

Either  of  the  above  will  prevent  condensation  of  the 
higher  hydrocarbons  and  greatly  assist  in  accurately 
measuring  the  gas. 

Testing  Large  Capacity  Meters  with  Gasoline  Gas — In 

testing  with  the  funnel  meter  use  the  residue  gas.  Take  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  gas  every  three  or  four  hours  while 
testing,  even  though  working  on  one  meter.  It  is  commonly 
found  that  the  gravity  of  the  residue  gas  will  run  as  high  as 
1.1  even  after  the  gasoline  has  been  extracted.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  while  the  very  highest  hydro-carbons  have 
been  extracted  they  evaporate  and  pass  out  with  the  residue 
gas.  The  gravity  of  the  residue  gas  will  be  highest  in  warm 
weather. 

Greater  caution  should  be  used  in  testing  with  this  gas 
than  with  natural  gas  as  the  residue  gas  being  so  heavy  will 
lav  near  the  ground  and  not  raise.  Do  not  run  any  tests 
within  a  building. 

Construction  of  Gasoline  Plant — If  the  range  of  pres- 
sures through  which  the  gas  is  to  be  compressed  exceeds 
seven  or  eight  compressions,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  two- 
stage  compressor  in  order  to  keep  the  temperature  within 
proper  working  limits.  For  this  class  of  work  a  single  two- 
stage  unit,  with  an  intercooler  forming  a  part  of  it,  is  satis- 
factory. 

568 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

It  is  also  desirable  to  have  the  compressor  belt-driven, 
to  permit  of  housing  it  in  a  separate  building  minimizing  the 
danger.  An  added  precaution  can  be  taken  by  having  the 
compressor  rods  packed  off  with  double  stuffing  boxes  pro- 
vided with  a  vent  pipe  leading  out  of  the  building,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  highly  inflammable  gas  into  the 
room  in  case  of  any  leak  due  to  defective  packing. 

Gas  engines  utilizing  residual  dry  gas  as  a  fuel,  fur- 
nish an  ideal  motor  power,  and  an  excellent  method  of 
transmitting  the  power  from  engine  to  compressor  is  by  means 
of  belting,  through  a  counter  shaft.  This  permits  of  operating 
both  engine  and  compressor  at  the  proper  speeds  to  secure 
highest  economy  from  both,  and  furnishes  a  convenient 
means  of  driving  such  small  machine  tools  as  may  be  needed 
about  the  plant,  such  as  lathe,  drill  press  and  electric  light 
dynamo. 

After  the  gas  is  compressed,  it  is  passed  through  the  water 
cooling  coils;  thence  into  the  expansion  cooling  coils,  where  it 
is  rendered  very  cold  while  still  at  a  high  pressure  by  means 
of  the  expansion  of  dry  gas  from  which  the  gasoline  had 
previously  been  extracted.  This  extraction  of  heat  while 
under  high  pressure  causes  the  gasoline  vapors  to  condense, 
and  the  gas  and  liquid  are  then  passed  into  the  separating 
tanks,  where  the  velocity  of  the  gas  is  greatly  reduced  and 
the  gasoline  separated  from  it.  The  dry  gas  then  passes  out 
into  the  expansion  nozzle  of  the  expansion  cooling  coils,  and 
takes  its  turn  in  expanding  from  a  high  to  a  low  pressure, 
thus  cooling  the  compressed  gas  that  passed  through  the 
compressor  and  water  cooling  system  after  it  did.  It  is  then 
piped  away  into  dry  gas  lines  to  be  used  as  fuel  for  the  gas 
engines  and  for  any  other  purpose  desired. 

The  safest  ignition  system  to  use  on  gas  engines  is 
the  make  and  break  system,  furnished  with  current  from 
storage  batteries,  the  latter  being  charged  at  night  from  the 
electric  light  system. 

569 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL     GAS 

Water,  of  course,  has  to  be  used  to  keep  the  gas  engine 
cool  and  to  cool  the  compression  cylinders  of  the  compressor, 
but  only  a  very  small  quantity  is  necessary  for  this  purpose 
and  it  can  be  circulated  indefinitely. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  successful  operation  of  a  plant 
that  the  stock  and  making  houses  be  built  of  cement  in  order 
to  exclude  the  heat,  so  far  as  possible,  during  the  hot  season. 
GasoHne  is  so  very  volatile  that  heat  produces  a  high  pressure 
in  the  storage  tanks. 

Description  of  Ordinary  Ammonia  Refrigerating 
Machine  (from  Bulletin  88,  Bureau  of  Mines) — "An  or- 
dinary ammonia  refrigerating  machine,  such  as  is  used  for 
cooling  purposes,  in  general  consists  essentially  of  three  parts 
— a  refrigerator  or  evaporator,  a  compression  pump  and  a 
condenser. 

The  refrigerator,  which  consists  of  a  coil  or  a  series  of 
coils,  is  connected  to  the  suction  side  of  the  pump,  and  the 
deHvery  from  the  pump  is  connected  to  the  condenser,  which 
is  generally  of  a  somewhat  similar  construction  to  the  re- 
frigerator. The  condenser  and  the  refrigerator  are  joined  by 
a  pipe  in  which  is  a  valve  called  the  regulator.  Outside  the 
refrigerating  coils  is  the  air,  brine,  or  other  substance  that  is 
to  be  cooled  in  the  refrigeration  system;  and  outside  the  con- 
denser is  the  cooling  medium,  which  is  water.  The  Hquid 
ammonia  passes  from  the  bottom  of  the  condenser  through 
the  regulating  valve  into  the  refrigerator  in  a  continuous 
stream.  As  the  pressure  in  the  refrigerator  is  reduced  by  the 
pump  and  maintained  at  such  a  degree  as  to  give  the  desired 
boiling  point — which  is,  of  course,  always  lower  than  the 
temperature  outside  the  coils — heat  passes  from  the  sub- 
stance outside  through  the  coil  surfaces  and  is  taken  up  by 
the  entering  liquid,  which  is  converted  into  vapor.  The 
vapors  thus  generated  are  drawn  into  the  pump,  compressed, 
and  discharged  into  the  condenser,  the  temperature  of  which 
is   somewhat   above   that   of   the   cooling   water.      Heat   is 

570 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

transferred  from  the  compressed  vapor  to  the  coohng  water, 
and  the  vapor  is  converted  into  a  Hquid  which  collects  at  the 
bottom  and  returns  by  the  regulating  valve  into  the  re- 
frigerator. The  compressor  may  be  driv^en  by  a  gas  engine 
or  in  any  other  convenient  manner.  The  pressure  in  the 
condenser  varies  according  to  the  temperature  of  the  cooling 
water,  and  that  in  the  refrigerator  is  dependent  upon  the 
temperature  to  which  the  outside  substance  is  cooled. 

Anhydrous  ammonia  is  a  gas  at  ordinary  temperatures 
and  under  atmospheric  temperatures.  The  liquid  anhydrous 
ammonia  is  commercially  sold  in  iron  drums  in  which  it  is 
contained  under  a  pressure  varying  between  120  and  200 
pounds  per  square  inch,  the  pressure  in  the  drum  depending 
on  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  in  it. 

Some  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  natural  gas  condensate 
obtained  can  be  had  by  considering  the  liquefaction  points  of 
the  constituents  that  are  found  in  natural  gases  used  for 
gasoline  condensation.  The  boiling  point  of  liquid  propane 
is  —  45°  C.  (—49°  fahr.),  and  of  liquid  butane  1°  C.  (34° 
fahr.). 

The  lowest  temperature  obtained  in  the  refrigerating 
coils  of  the  OHnda  plant  is  —  10°  C.  (14°  fahr.).  Hence  it 
can  be  accepted  that  no  propane  is  liquefied,  but  some  butane 
and  higher  paraffins  are.  The  efficiency  of  the  extraction  of 
the  condensible  constituents  from  the  natural  gas  for  any 
given  temperature  will  depend  upon  the  velocity  of  the  gas 
through  the  coils,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  area  of 
cooling  surface.  Heat  is  of  course  extracted  from  the  natural 
gas  when  it  enters  the  cooling  system.  If  the  cooling  area  of 
the  pipes  is  not  great  enough,  the  residual  natural  gas  will 
leave  the  system  still  containing  gasoline  vapors  that  could 
have  been  condensed  by  further  cooling  treatment.  By 
proper  experimentation  the  amount  of  cooling  surface  re- 
quired to  produce  the  greatest  quantity  of  salable  condensate 
can  be  ascertained.     Presumably  the  operators  of  the  Olinda 

571 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

plant  have  made  such  a  determination.  The  authors  are  not 
closely  aquainted  with  the  operations.  They  believe  that 
the  refrigeration  method  offers  much  promise  and  that  more 
plants  of  this  type  will  be  installed. 

In  the  United  States  at  least  85  per  cent,  of  the  refrigera- 
tion plants  used  for  various  purposes  use  ammonia  as  the 
refrigerant.  Other  refrigerants  that  may  be  used  are  sulphur 
dioxide,  carbon  dioxide,  and  water  vapor." 


572 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

Lighting  Plant — While  there  is  danger  of  explosion  due 
to  the  breaking  of  an  incandescent  light  bulb  in  an  explosive 
mixture  of  gas  and  air,  nevertheless  the  electric  light  fur- 
nishes the  least  dangerous  method  of  lighting  a  gasoline-gas 
plant  and  should  invariably  be  used.  Good  ventilation 
should  always  be  provided  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of 
gas,  and  all  light  bulbs  should  be  guarded  to  prevent  breakage. 


Fig.  £30— GAS  RELIEF  VAL\'E  OR  REGULATOR  FOR  XATLRAL 
GAS  GASOLINE   PLANTS 


Gas  Relief  Regulator — This  regulator  is  of  special  in- 
terest to  gasoline  makers. 

After  the  gasoline  has  been  compressed  to  a  high  pres- 
sure, generally  about  three  hundred  pounds,  per  square  inch, 
this  tvpe  of  regulator  will  reduce  the  pressure  to  twenty  or 
thirty  pounds  and  retain  that  pressure.  If  the  pressure 
ahead  of  the  regulator  drops  below  that  at  which  it  is  set,  it 
will  cut  off.  In  other  words  it  acts  the  opposite  of  a  standard 
regulator  used  in  distributing  gas. 

Percentage  of  Vapor  Condensed  by  Compression  and 
Cooling  (from  Bulletin  88,  Bureau  of  Alines)  "The  change 
in  the  raw  gas  that  takes  place  in  the  compressors  and  coolers 
of  a  plant  consists  in  the  conversion  of  certain  vapors  and 

573 


CONDENSATION     OF     GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL     GAS 

gases  into  liquid  condition,  and  the  solution  of  gases  in  these 
liquids.  To  give  exact  figures  for  the  proportions  of  gas  and 
vapor  that  disappear  is  impossible.  An  approximation,  how- 
ever, can  be  reached.  One  gallon  of  liquid  propane  when 
converted  into  gas  produces  about  31  cubic  feet  of  gas  at  0° 
C.  and  760  mm.  pressure.  One  gallon  of  propane  in  the  liquid 
condition  produces  about  4.5  cubic  feet  of  gas.  One  gallon  of 
butane  produces  37  cubic  feet  of  gas.  Butane  and  pentane 
are  probably  the  tw^o  paraffins  that  are  removed  in  greatest 
quantity. 

Aside  from  such  liquefaction  a  certain  amount  of  gas  is 
absorbed  by  the  liquid,  as  stated  above.  It  is  small  as  regards 
the  total  disappearance  of  gas.  The  authors  estimate  that  at 
some  plants  about  35  cubic  feet  of  gas  disappears  for  each 
gallon  of  condensate  produced  from  1,000  cubic  feet  of  gas. 
If  4  gallons  of  condensate  per  1,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  is  ob- 
tained, then  140  cubic  feet,  or  about  14  per  cent  of  the  gas 
treated,  has  disappeared.  At  some  plants,  however,  as  much 
as  50  per  cent  of  gas  disappears,  and  at  others  the  quantity 
of  residual  gas  is  almost  insignificant. 

Results  of  Analyses  of  Gases  from  Different  Stages  of 
Plant  Operation — Table  following  shows  the  results  of 
laboratory  tests  of  various  gases  derived  from  the  different 
stages  of  plant  operation.  The  percentage  of  air  was  calcu- 
lated from  the  oxygen  content  as  determined  by  analysis. 

Regarding  the  results  shown  in  table  on  page  572,  the 
chemical  analysis,  the  specific  gravity  determination,  and  the 
claroline  oil  absorption  show  the  gas  represented  to  be  a  rich 
one.  It  will  be  seen  that  little  difference  existed  between  the 
composition  of  the  crude  gas  and  the  same  gas  after  it  had 
been  compressed  to  a  pressure  of  50  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Only  after  the  compression  to  a  pressure  of  250  pounds  per 
square  inch  and  cooling,  did  the  composition  of  the  gas 
mixture  change  appreciably. 

574 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


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CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

Under  existing  methods  of  plant  operation,  condensate 
is  extracted  from  natural  gas  that  ranges  in  specific  gravity 
from  as  low  as  0.83  to  as  high  as  1.59  (air  =  l)  and  the 
solubilities  of  the  gas  in  claroline  oil  ranges  from  36.9  (air  free) 
to  85.7  per  cent,  according  to  the  well  from  which  it  comes. 

The  authors  hesitate  to  recommend  the  installation  of  a 
plant  to  handle  natural  gas  that  shows  results  as  poor  as  the 
minimum  values  given  in  the  table.  Such  gas  might  produce 
gasoline  in  paying  quantities  and  might  not.  Probably  the 
safest  extremes  would  be  a  specific  gravity  of  0.95  (air=  1), 
and  a  claroline-oil  absorption  of  40  per  cent.  The  natural 
gas  supplied  to  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  with  which  the  authors  are 
most  familiar,  contains  little  of  the  gaseous  hydrocarbons, 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.64  (air  =  1),  and  has  a  claroline-oil 
absorption  of  about  16  per  cent.  It  is  a  dry  gas  and  is  un- 
suitable for  gasoline  production. 

Specific  Gravities  and  Absorption  Numbers  of  Natural 
Gases  Used  for  Condensation  of  Natural  Gas  (Bureau  of 
Mines,  Bulletin  Xo.  88.  By  G.  A.  Burrel,  F.  M.  Seibert  and 
G.  G.  Oberfell) — The  authors  have  compiled  the  following 
table  to  show  at  a  glance  the  specific  gravities  and  absorp- 
tion numbers  of  natural  gases  used  for  the  condensation  of 
natural  gas.  The  table  is  compiled  from  the  results  shown 
in  the  table  preceding.  The  compilation  will  be  useful  for 
reference  in  predicting  the  results  that  may  be  obtained 
from  other  samples  of  natural  gas. 


Specific 

Absorp- 

, 

Specific 

Absorp- 

No. 

gravity 

tion 

i       No. 

gravity 

tion 

(air=l) 

number 

(air=l) 

number 

1 

1.46 

86 

7 

1.37 

48 

2 

1.41 

84 

8 

1.38 

44 

3 

1.03 

39 

9 

1.21 

54 

4 

1.59 

43 

10 

1.29 

50 

5 

.83 

23 

11 

1.07 

38 

6 

1.38 

65 

12 

1.00 

37 

576 


CONDENSATION      OF     GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


LOW    EXPLOSIVE    LIMITS    FOR    PARAFFIN    GASES 
AND  VAPORS,  a      (Bureau  of  Mines) 

The  following  table  shows  the  small  percentages  of  gases 
and  vapors  occurring  in  natural  gas  that  are  required  to  form 
explosive  mixtures  with  air: 


Proportion  of 

Proportion  of 

gas-air  mix-     1 

gas-air  mix- 

Hydrocarbon 

ture  consti- 

Hydrocarbon 

ture  consti- 

tuting low 

tuting  low 

explosive 

explosive 

limit 

limit 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Methane 

5.60  to  5.70 

N  butane 

1.60  to  1.70 

Ethane 

3.00  to  3.20 

N  pentane 

1.35  to  1.40 

Propane 

2.15  to  2.30 

According  to  the  above  table,  even  if  a  natural  gas  con- 
sisted almost  entirely  of  methane,  as  some  natural  gases  do, 
an  explosion  would  follow  an  ignition  of  a  mixture  of  air  and 
natural    gas    containing    o.oO    per    cent,    of    methane. 

Solution  of  Gas  in  Condensates — As  previously  stated, 
one  of  the  physical  changes  occurring  in  the  operation  of  a 
gasoline  plant  has  to  do  with  the  solution  of  gas  in  the  con- 
densate, that  is,  wdien  the  residual  gas  is  in  contact  with  the 
condensate  in  the  storage  tank.  The  following  experiment 
and  calculation  by  the  authors  will  serve  to  show  how  small 
and  insignificant  this  change  may  be. 

A  residual  gas  from  an  operating  plant  was  shaken  with 
refinery  naphtha.  The  naphtha  had  a  specific  gravity  of 
()1°  B.  The  solution  was  effected  at  a  temperature  of  20°  C. 
(68°  fahr.)  and  atmospheric  pressure.  The  naphtha  was 
shaken  with  the  gas  supply  tnitil  no  more  gas  would  go  into 
solution.    It  was  found  that  1  liter  of  the  naphtha  dissolved 

a  Burgess,  M    J.,  and  Wheeler,  R.  V.,  The  lower  limit  of    the   inflammability 
of  mixtures  of  the  paraffin  hydrocarbons    with    air;    Trans.    Chem.    Soc,    vol.    99. 

1911,  pp.  2013,  2o;in. 

577 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

1,760  liters  of  the  gas;  or  500  gallons  of  the  naphtha  would 
have  dissolved  3,331.7  liters  of  the  gas.  If  the  assumption 
be  made  that  this  residual  gas  was  ethane  only,  then  it  can 
be  calculated  that  3,331.7  liters  of  gaseous  ethane  at  16°  C. 
(60°  fahr.)  and  30  inches  of  mercury  is  equivalent  to  2.7 
gallons  of  liquid  ethane.  This  quantity  of  liquid  is  so  small 
as  to  seem  insignificant,  although  as  regards  raising  the 
vapor  pressure  of  the  condensate  it  is  important. 

Evaporation  Losses  in  Blending — The  following  table 
shows  the  results  of  some  blending  tests  made  by 
the  authors.  The  condensate,  as  it  was  drawn  from  the 
storage  tank,  was  allowed  to  stand  in  graduated  vessels,  and 
the  loss  sustained  by  evaporation  over  different  periods  of 
time  was  noted.  The  containers  were  graduated  glass 
cylinders  having  a  capacity  of  1,000  c.  c.  Their  inside  dia- 
meter was  2^/8  inches  and  they  were  13  inches  high.  Some  of 
the  same  condensate,  as  it  was  drawn  from  the  storage  tanks, 
was  also  mixed  with  naphtha  and  allowed  to  stand  and  the 
loss  noted." 


EVAPORATION  LOSSES   OF  DIFFERENT    MIXTURES 
OF  NATURAL  GAS  CONDENSATES  AND 
REFINERY  NAPHTHAS 


Propor- 
tions in 
mixture 

Specific 

gravity 

of— 

■>  6 

End  of 
1  hour 

End  of 
2  hours 

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o 

rt   >- 

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50 

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93 

60 

76.5 

76 

4 

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2 

70 

30 

93 

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76 

75.5 

6 

74.5 

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70 

30 

95 

44 

74.5 

74 

13 

72.5 

20 

4a 

50 

50 

95 

44 

67 

65.5 

8 

65 

16 

578 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 


End  of  3 

p:nd  of  4 

Proportions 

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18 

73 

22 

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31 

67 

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65to70 

18to21 

9 

71.5 
71 

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69 

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4a .  .  . 

63 

25 

62        30 

61 

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56  1     54 

60to70 

16to21 

Hauling  Gasoline — In  some  cases  where  high  gravity 
gasoline  is  hauled  in  drums  by  wagons,  it  is  good  policy  to 
cover  the  load  well  with  wet  blankets.  The  blankets  can  be 
drenched  with  water  en  route  at  any  convenient  watering 
place.  This  method  will  keep  the  gasoline  cool  and  insure 
safe  delivery,  especially  in  warm  weather. 

a  In  conducting  this  test  the  mixture  was  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  to  a  greater 
extent  than  in  tests  1  and  2.  It  was  poured  from  one  vessel  to  another  eight 
times,  thus  exposing  more  liquid  surface  to  the  atmosphere  and  causing  more  rapid 
evaporation  than  would  have  occurred  if  it  had  been  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
the  same  vessel  all  time  without  disturbance. 

579 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

Market  for  High  Gravity  Gasoline — There  is  a  large 
demand  for  gasoline  of  88  deg.  Beaume  test  by  canning 
factories  for  soldering,  by  plumbers  and  tinsmiths,  and  for 
burning  off  paint  from  buildings  by  painters.  Racing  auto- 
mobiles also  use  it  for  power. 


PRESSURES    GENERATED   BY   HEATING    GASOLINE 
AND  CONFINED  LIQUEFIED  NATURAL  GAS 

(Bx  C.  A.  Bur  rein 


3era- 
re 

Pressures  Generated  by— 

Tern] 
tu 

Refinery 
gasoHne 

(80°B.) 

Natural  Gasoline  Obtained  at— 

50  pounds 
pressure 

250  pounds 
pressure 

400  pounds 
pressure 

°C. 
0 

°Fahr. 
32 

Pounds 
0 

Pounds 

Pounds 
107 

Pounds 
360 

5 

41 

0 

9 

117 

375 

10 

50 

0 

12 

130 

398 

15 

59 

0 

16 

144 

423 

20 

68 

' 

20 

154 

453 

25 

77 

5 

25 

175 

482 

30 

86 

10 

30 

193 

510 

35 

95 

16 

34 

210 

545 

40 

104 

26 

40 

231 

585 

45 

113 

41 

46 

251 

630 

50 

122 

92 

52 

275 

690 

55 

131 

350 

58 

... 

755 

60 

140 

... 

65 

580 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

TABLE  OF  HEAT  VALUES  OF  THE  LIGHTER  HYDRO- 
CARBON PRODUCTS  FROM  CRUDE  OIL 


Commercial 
Term 

Beaume 

B.  t.  u. 
per  lb. 

B.  t.  u. 
per  Standard 
U.  S.  Gallon 

Gasoline 

100 
95 

22,250 
22,050 

90 

21,850 

]  15,805 

85 

21,650 

117,343 

80 

21,450 

119,476 

76 

21,290 

120.927 

75 

21.250 

121,337 

73 

21,170 

122,150 

70 

21.050 

123,142 

68 

20,970 

123.932 

65 

20.850 

125,100 

64 

20,810 

125,484 

62 

20,730 

126,453 

Kerosene : 

(Water  White) .  .  . 

58 
48 

20,570 
20.170 

127.945 
132.516 

46 

20.090 

133,397 

44 

20.010 

134.467 

42 

19,930 

135,524 

40 

19,850 

136.369 

A  gallon  of  ()5  cleg,  gasoline,  which  weighs  5.999  pounds, 
will  produce  22.7  cubic  feet  of  gas;  and  one  gallon  of  70 
deg.  gasoline,  weighing  5.85  pounds,  will  produce  2o.l  cubic 
feet  of  gas.     Temperature  60  deg.  fahr. 


581 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL     GAS 

Effects  of  Different  Weather  Conditions  on  the  Manu- 
facturing of  Gasoline — In  dry  hot  weather  it  is  difficult  to 
obtain  adequate  cooling  water  and  as  a  consequence  the 
production  of  gasoline  is  smaller  than  during  the  cold  winter 
months. 

Operating  Cost — The  cost  of  operating  a  plant  capable 
of  making  seven  hundred  gallons  of  gasoline  per  day  should 
not  exceed  Slo  per  day  including  everything,  and  can  be 
installed  for  S10,000  complete.  Since  there  is  a  ready  market 
for  gasoline,  it  is  easy  to  appreciate  that  there  should  be  a 
good  profit  in  it. 

Shipping  Gasoline — Wooden  barrels  should  not  be  used 
to  ship  gasoline  extracted  from  natural  gas.  Steel  drums  of 
the  very  best  type  manufactured  should  be  used  and  must 
stand  a  pressure  of  forty  pounds  per  square  inch  without 
any  leaks  whatever.  A  fifty-five  gallon  drum  should  weigh 
not  more  than  seventy  pounds  without  hoops  and  a  one- 
hundred-and-ten  gallon  drum  should  weigh  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  thirty  pounds  without  hoops. 

If  a  drum,  such  as  is  used  for  shipping  gasoline  and  high 
distillates,  filled  with  64  deg.  Beaume  gasoline  is  allowed  to 
stand  in  the  sun  with  the  thermometer  registering  95  deg. 
fahr.  with  a  pressure  gauge  attached,  it  will  show  that  the 
heat  has  caused  a  gas  pressure  of  twenty-nine  and  one-half 
pounds.  For  the  purpose  of  transporting  gasoline,  special 
drums  have  been  designed  to  withstand  over  eighty  pounds 
pressure. 

Do  not  use  w'ooden  plugs.  Metal  plugs  should  be  close 
fitting,  using  a  gasket  of  asbestos. 

Glycerine  drums  are  not  satisfactory  holders  of  gasoline. 

Drums  should  not  be  filled  full,  but  only  to  within  about 
two  inches  of  the  top,  to  allow  for  expansion. 

Safety  Valves  for  Gasoline  Tank  Cars^Safety  valves  on 
tank  cars  should  be  set  to  blow  oif  at  ten  pounds.    It  is  better 

582 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

to  use  several  safety  valves  set  at  ten,  fifteen,  twenty,  and 
twenty-five  pounds  than  to  use  one  valve  set  at  ten  pounds. 

Rules  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission^ — The 
final  rules  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  regarding 
the  shipment  of  natural  gas  gasoline  are  presented  below : 

Regulations  for  the  Transportation  on  Railroads  of 
Natural  Gas  Gasoline  a — Liquefied  petroleum  gas  is  a  con- 
densate from  the  "casing-head  gas"  of  petroleum  oil  wells, 
whose  vapor  tension  at  100°  fahr.  (38°  C.)  (90°  fahr.  or  32°  C. 
— November  1  to  March  1)  exceeds  10  pounds  per  square 
inch.  Liquefied  petroleum  gas  must  be  shipped  in  metal 
drums  or  barrels  which  comply  with  "Shipping-Container 
Specifications  No.  5,"  or  in  tank  cars  especially  constructed 
and  approved  for  this  servnce  by  the  Master  Car  Builders' 
Association. 

When  the  vapor  tension  at  100°  fahr.  (38°  C.)  exceeds 
25  pounds  per  square  inch,  cylinders  as  prescribed  for  com- 
pressed gas  must  be  used. 

(The  Commission  has  not  deemed  it  best  at  this  time  to 
prohibit  the  use  of  good  wooden  barrels  in  shipping  inflam- 
mable liquids  with  a  flash  point  below^  20°  fahr.  ( — 7°  C.) 
It  is,  however,  expected  that  their  use  for  that  purpose  will 
be  gradually  discontinued  and  that  within  a  reasonable  time 
metal  barrels  will  come  into  general  use  for  such  shipments.) 

Packages  containing  inflammable  liquids  must  not  be 
entirely  filled.  Sufficient  interior  space  must  be  left  vacant 
to  prevent  distortion  by  containers  when  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature of  120°  fahr.  (49°  C).  This  vacant  space  must  not 
be  less  than  2  per  cent,  of  the  capacity  of  the  container 
including  the  dome  capacity  of  tank  cars. 

1.  The  provisions  of  "Shipping-Container  Specifica- 
tions No.  5"  apply  to  all  containers  specified  therein  that  are 


a  From  "Regulations  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  for  the  Trans- 
portation of  explosives  and  other  Dangerous  .Articles  by  Freight  and  by  Express, 
and  Specifications  for  Shipping  Containers,"  published  by  the  Bureau  for  the  Safe 
Transportation  of  Explosives  and  Other  Dangerous  Articles,  in  Januarv,  1912,  pp 
72,  148.  1-44.  and  14.5.      EfTective  March  81.  1912. 

583 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE     FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

purchased  after  December  31,  1911,  and  used  for  the  ship- 
ment of  dangerous  articles  other  than  explosives.  Each  such 
container  purchased  subsequently  to  December  31,  1911, 
shall  have  plainly  stamped  thereon  the  date  of  manufacture 
thereof. 

2.  An  iron  or  steel  barrel  or  drum  with  a  capacity  of 
from  50  to  55  gallons  must  have  a  minimum  weight  in  the 
black,  exclusive  of  the  weight  of  rolling  hoops,  of  70  pounds, 
and  the  minimum  thickness  of  metal  in  any  part  of  the  com- 
pleted barrel  must  not  be  less  than  that  of  No.  16  gauge 
United  vStates  standard. 

3.  An  iron  or  steel  barrel  or  drum  with  a  capacity  of 
from  100  to  110  gallons  must  have  a  minimum  w^eight  in  the 
black,  exclusive  of  the  rolhng  hoops,  of  not  less  than  130 
pounds,  and  the  minimum  thickness  of  metal  in  any  part  of 
the  completed  barrel  or  drum  must  not  be  less  than  that  of 
full  No.  14  gauge  United  States  standard. 

■1.  Each  barrel  or  drum  must  stand  without  leaking  a 
manufacturers'  test  under  water  by  interior  compressed  air 
at  a  pressure  of  not  less  than  15  pounds  per  square  inch 
sustained  for  not  less  than  two  minutes,  and  the  type  of 
barrel  or  drum  must  be  capable  of  standing  without  any 
serious  permanent  deformation  and  without  leaking  a  hydro- 
static test  pressure  of  not  less  than  40  pounds  per  square 
inch,  sustained  for  not  less  than  five  minutes. 

5.  When  filled  with  water  to  98  per  cent,  of  its  capacit\" 
the  type  of  barrel  or  drum  must  also  be  capable  of  standing 
without  leakage  a  test  drop  on  its  chime  for  a  height  of  4  feet 
upon  a  solid  concrete  foundation. 

().  Bungs  and  other  openings  must  be  provided  with 
secure  closing  devices  that  will  not  permit  leakage  through 
them.  Threaded  metal  plugs  must  be  close  fitting.  Gaskets 
must  be  made  of  lead,  leather,  or  other  suitable  material. 
Wooden  plugs  must  be  covered  with  a  suitable  coating  and 
must  have  a  driving  fit  into  a  tapered  hole. 

584 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

7.  The  method  of  manufacturing  the  barrel  or  drum 
and  the  materials  used  must  be  well  adapted  to  producing  a 
uniform  product.  Leaks  in  a  new  barrel  or  drum  must  not 
be  stopped  by  soldering,  but  must  be  repaired  by  the  method 
used  in  constructing  the  ])arrel  or  drum. 

Liquefied  Gas:  A  By-Product  from  Gasoline  Gas  (By 
Walter  0.  SjicUing) — "During  the  past  few  years  some 
promising  work  has  been  done  toward  the  production  of 
pure  homogeneous  liquid  products  from  natural  gas,  suitable 
for  the  cheap  and  convenient  lighting  of  isolated  dwellings. 
Efforts  have  been  made  for  many  years  to  utilize  compressed 
natural  gas  as  a  means  of  lighting,  and  cases  are  known 
where  cylinders  of  compressed  natural  gas  have  been  so 
used  and  in  the  near  vicinity  of  natural  gas  fields,  but  outside 
of  the  range  of  popular  distribution.  The  pressures  which 
result  from  the  compression  of  natural  gas  are,  however, 
very  considerable.  The  average  steel  cylinder  used  in  the 
distribution  of  compressed  oxygen,  for  example,  has  an 
actual  capacity  usually  ranging  from  three-fourths  cubic  foot 
to  one  cubic  foot.  Upon  compressing  up  to  100  volumes  of 
natural  gas  in  such  a  cylinder  the  pressure  reaches  100 
atmospheres,  or  ]  ,500  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  it  is  of 
course  wholly  impossible  for  cylinders  holding  as  little  as 
100  cubic  feet  of  natural  gas  to  be  utilized  commercially. 
These  two  experiments  in  the  compression  of  natural  gas 
were  the  forerunners  of  a  series  of  experiments  made  toward 
liquefying  the  higher  members  of  the  paraffin  series  present 
in  oil-well  gases,  and  as  a  result  of  these  studies  a  method 
has  been  devised  by  which  there  is  now  being  prepared 
commercially  a  liquefied  natural  gas,  known  under  the  trade 
name  of  "Gasol,"  and  which  seems  destined  to  have  an  im- 
portant part  in  tiie  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  lighting 
of  isolated  dwellings. 

Realizing  that  the  simple  compression  of  natural  gas 
would  not  produce  a  ])roduct  which  could  be  commercially 

585 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

handled  on  account  of  the  high  pressure  present  in  the  con- 
tainer, efforts  were  directed  toward  separating  as  a  homo- 
geneous and  pure  material  the  ethane  and  propane  present 
in  the  heavier  or  "wet"  gases  from  oil  wells.  The  simple 
compression  of  such  material  produces  a  condensation  of  all 
the  hydrocarbons  present,  including  hexane  and  pentane, 
and  considerable  quantities  of  ethane,  propane  and  butane. 
Preliminary  experiments  were  made  to  utilize  this  condensate, 
but  the  fact  that  it  was  entirely  lacking  in  homogeneity, 
and  that  the  gases  given  off  in  its  volitalization  were  different 
from  moment  to  moment,  showed  such  a  plan  to  lack  feasi- 
bihty.  As  a  result  of  an  extended  series  of  studies,  we 
succeeded  in  1911  in  preparing  pure  products  of  ethane  and 
propane,  these  having  been  separated  from  natural  gas  con- 
densates by  a  system  of  fractionation  based  on  selective 
condensation  on  heated  oils.  The  principle  involved  in  the 
separation  of  these  pure  products  consists  primarily  in  the 
vaporization  of  all  of  the  hydrocarbons  present  under  a  very 
high  pressure,  usually  from  800  to  1,000  pounds  per  square 
inch,  and  while  under  this  high  pressure  condensation  is 
effected  upon  coils  which  are  heated  intermediate  between 
the  critical  temperature  of  part  of  the  gases  present.  As  a 
result  it  was  found  possible  to  entirely  separate  hexane  and 
pentane  from  the  ethane  and  propane,  and  to  liquefy  the 
ethane  and  propane  in  separate  containers. 

The  commercial  preparation  of  the  new  gas  involves  the 
compression  of  "wet"  natural  gas,  with  consequent  liquefac- 
tion of  a  large  part  of  the  hydrocarbons  contained,  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  more  easily  condensed  products,  particularly 
hexane  and  higher  isomers,  and  the  rectification  of  the 
remaining  product  by  means  of  selective  condensation  upon 
heated  coils  while  the  gas  is  under  high  pressure,  usually  in 
excess  of  1,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  heated  coils 
are  maintained  at  such  temperatures  as  to  cause  the  separate 
gases  to  condense,  one  after  another,   depending  upon  the 

586 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

relation  of  their  vapor  pressure  to  the  temperature  of  the 
coil  and  the  pressure  existing  within  the  rectifier.  The 
"Gasol"  which  is  produced  is  a  perfectly  colorless  and  trans- 
parent liquid,  which  remains  as  a  liquid  at  a  temperature 
of  70  deg.  cent,  or  lower,  but  which,  at  normal  conditions 
of  temperature,  only  exists  in  the  form  of  a  liquid  when  under 
a  pressure  in  excess  of  400  pounds  per  square  inch.  Any 
release  of  this  pressure  causes  it  to  change  at  once  into  gas, 
this  gas  having  the  remarkably  high  calorific  power  when 
expanded  to  atmospheric  pressure  of  2,400  B.  t.  u.  per  cubic 
foot. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  heating  value  of  ordinary 
coal-gas  is  only  about  600  B.  t.  u.  per  cubic  foot,  and  manu- 
factured oil  gas  is  less  than  650  B.  t.  u.  per  cubic  foot,  it 


Fig.  231- 


-LIQUEFIED  GAS   TANKS  AXD  REGILATORS 
FOR  HOrSE  IXSTALLATIOXS 


587 


CONDENSATION      OF      GASOLINE      FROM      NATURAL      GAS 

will  be  seen  that  the  new  gas  has  about  four  times  the  heat- 
producing  capacity,  when  equal  volumes  are  considered,  of 
either  coal-gas  or  manufactured  oil-gas.  In  addition  its  flame 
temperature  is  much  higher,  being  decidedly  higher  than 
the  flame  temperature  of  natural  gas  or  any  other  of  the 
common  gases  used  for  heating. 

The  flame  temperature  of  ordinary  natural  gas  burning 
in  air  is  about  2,150  deg.,  and  the  flame  temperature  of  ethane 
burning  in  air  is  about  2,205  deg.  The  flame  temperature  of 
the  new  gas  is  about  2,300  deg.,  and  since  the  amount  of  light 
produced  from  the  Welsbach  mantle  bears  an  important 
relation  to  the  temperature  of  the  flame,  the  reason  is  here 
seen  for  the  remarkable  brilliancy  of  the  light  produced  by 
the  new  gas,  which  excels  in  this  respect  all  gases  previously 
known. 

The  liquid  is  distributed  in  steel  bottles,  about  forty-four 
inches  high  and  eight  inches  in  diameter,  each  bottle  holding 
forty  pounds  of  the  liquid  gas,  and  producing  the  equivalent 
in  heating  power  of  somewhat  over  2,000  cubic  feet  of  or- 
dinary coal  gas. . 

The  experimental  development  of  "Gasol"  has  been 
going  on  for  more  than  a  year,  and  its  commercial  use  dates 
back  a  few  months.  It  is  now  being  used  in  the  lighting  of 
country  dweflings,  where  the  only  care  given  to  it  is  the 
exchange  of  bottles  as  an  old  bottle  becomes  empty  (usually 
about  one  a  month),  and  in  actual  practice  in  the  lighting  of 
country  homes  this  gas  is  proving  to  be  remarkably  well 
suited  to  such  use.  The  light  which  it  gives  with  the  inverted 
Welsbach  mantle  is  superior  to  the  light  which  can  be  pro- 
duced from  either  natural  or  coal  gas.  For  cooking,  the  gas 
is  also  very  satisfactory,  giving  a  small  but  intensely  hot 
flame,  free  from  even  the  slightest  disposition  to  soot. 


588 


PART  s  1 :  y  K  X  T 1 :  i :  x 

Power 

Horse  Power  The  use  of  the  term  "horse  power"  as 
indicating  the  measure  of  an  engine's  work  came  naturally 
from  the  fact  that  the  first  engines  were  built  to  do  work 
that  had  formerly  been  performed  by  horses.  John  vSmeaton, 
who  built  atmospheric  engines  before  Bolton  and  Watt 
placed  their  more  complete  machines  upon  the  market,  had 
valued  the  work  done  by  a  strong  horse  as  being  equivalent 
to  lifting  a  weight  of  20,000  pounds  one  foot  high  in  one 
minute.  When  Bolton  and  Watt  began  to  bid  for  public 
favor,  they  agreed  to  place  their  engines  "for  a  value  of  one- 
third  part  of  the  coals  which  are  saved  in  its  use."  They 
also  increased  the  value  of  the  "horse  power"  to  33,000 
pounds,  so  that  their  engines  were  half  again  as  powerful 
for  their  rated  power  as  those  of  their  competitors.  In  this 
way  they  established  the  value  of  horse  power. 

The  following  are  the  value  of  a  horse  power: 

33,000  foot  pounds  per  hour. 

550  foot  pounds  per  minute. 

2545  thermal  units  per  hour. 

42.42  thermal  units  per  minute. 

The  horse  power  of  a  boiler  depends  upon  its  capacity 
for  evaporation.  The  evaporation  of  thirty  pounds  of  water 
from  100  deg.  fahr.  into  steam  at  70  pounds  gauge  pressure 
(equaling  34 1  9  pounds  from  and  at  212  deg.  fahr.)  is  equal 
to  a  horse  power. 

To  fmd  the  mean  effective  pressure  of  a  simple  steam 
engine,  using  steam  at  an  initial  pressure  of  80  pound  gauge, 

589 


POWER 

divide  the  length  of  cut-off  by  the  total  length  of  the  stroke, 
both  in  inches,  and  take  the  mean  effective  pressure  from 
the  following  table : 

Cut-off  ^  0 

of  stroke 10       .15       .20       .25       .30       .35       .40       .45       .50 

M.  E.  P. 

lb.  per 

sq.  in 18         27         35         42         48         53         57         61         64 

Super-heated  steam  is  steam  which  has  a  greater  tem- 
perature than  that  due  to  its  pressure. 

To  determine  the  heating  surface  in  the  tubes  of  any 
boiler,  multiply  the  number  of  feet  of  the  tubes  by  the 
decimal  .523  for  2-inch;  .654  for  23/^-inch;  .785  for  3-inch; 
.916  for  334-inch;    and  by  1.047  for  4-inch. 

Steam — Steam  is  an  elastic  fluid  generated  by  the  action 
of  heat  upon  water. 

Steam,   when   separated  from  water,   from  which  it    is 

generated,  follows  the  law  of  all  other  gases,  expanding   ttt 

of  its  volume  for  each  additional  degree  of  heat,  the  pressure 
remaining  the  same;  and,  while  the  temperature  remains 
the  same,  the  pressure  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  volume. 

The  temperature  of  the  steam  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
w^ater  from  which  it  is  formed,  and  its  elastic  force  is  equal 
to  the  pressure  under  which  it  is  formed. 

Total  heat  of  steam  at  212  deg.  fahr.  is  1150  B.  t.  u. 

Latent  heat  of  steam  is  found  by  subtracting  its  sensible 
heat  (called  heat  of  the  liquid)  from  the  total  heat,  and  is 
equal  to  970.4  B.  t.  u.  at  212  deg.  fahr.  or  14.7  lb.  atmo- 
spheric pressure. 

Latent  heat  of  steam  is  composed  of  two  elements — the 
heat  required  to  evaporate  the  water  into  steam  at  the  same 
temperature   and  pressure,   and   that  necessary  to  do  the 

o9() 


POWER 

external  work  required  l^y  the  steam  to  make  room  for  itself 
against  the  pressure  of  the  surrounding  steam  or  atmosphere. 
It  is  not  evidenced  by  any  increase  in  temperature. 

To  fmd  the  quantity  of  water  required  to  condense  a 
given  quantity  of  steam,  substract  the  heat  of  the  liquid  at 
the  temperature  of  the  hot  well  from  the  total  heat  of  the 
steam  to  be  condensed.  Then  divide  this  difference  by  the 
difference  in  temperature  between  the  hot  well  and  the 
injection  water,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  number 
of  pounds  of  steam  to  be  condensed.  The  result  will  be  the 
weight  of  injection  water  required. 

Steam  Horse  Power — The  amount  of  water  which  a 
boiler  will  evaporate  at  an  economical  rate  in  an  hour, 
divided  by  the  above  quantity,  is  its  commercial  horse 
power. 

A  unit  of  evaporation  is  the  heat  required  to  evaporate 
a  pound  of  water  from  and  at  212  deg.  fahr.  and  is  equal  to 
970.4  thermal  units. 

A  thermal  unit  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise 
a  pound  of  water  a  fahrenheit  degree  in  temperature  at  the 
point  of  maximum  density,  namely,  39  deg.  fahr. 

One  thermal  unit  is  equivalent  to  778  foot  pounds.  The 
horse  power  of  engines  varies  directly  as  the  product  of  the 
piston  area,  piston  speed,  and  mean  effective  pressure.  Hence 
with  the  same  m.  e.  p.,  the  power  of  engines  varies  directly 
as  their  piston  speed,  and  as  the  square  of  the  diameter. 

To  Find  Horse  Power  of  a  Steam  Engine — To  find  the 
horse  power  of  a  steam  engine,  multiply  the  diameter  of  the 
piston  in  inches  by  itself,  and  this  result  by  .7854,  which  will 
give  the  area  of  the  piston  in  square  inches.  Multiply  the 
area  so  found  by  the  speed  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  minute ; 
or,  if  the  speed  is  taken  in  inches,  divide  the  product  by  12, 
after  multiplying.  (Speed  of  piston  is  found  by  multiplying 
twice  the  length  of  stroke  by  the  number  of  revolutions  per 
minute.)     ^Multiply  speed  of  piston  by  the  mean  effective 

r)9l 


POWER 


TABLE  OF  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES 


DIAM. 

DIAM. 

DIAM. 

DIAM. 

AREA 

AREA 

AREA 

AREA 

INCH. 

INCH. 

INCH. 

INCH. 

Vs 

.0123 

73/^ 

47.17 

183^ 

268.80 

373^ 

1104.5 

Va 

.0491 

8 

50.27 

19 

283.53 

38 

1134.1 

y% 

.110 

834 

53.46 

193^ 

298.65 

383^ 

1164.2 

¥2 

.196 

83^ 

56.75 

20 

314.16 

39 

1194.6 

H 

.307 

8M 

60.13 

20>^ 

330.06 

393^ 

1225.4 

% 

.442 

9 

63.62 

21 

346.36 

40 

1256.6 

'A 

.601 

9M 

67.20 

21^ 

363.05 

403^ 

1288.2 

1 

.785 

93^ 

70.88 

22 

380.13 

41 

1320 . 3 

13^ 

.994 

9M 

74.66 

221^ 

397.61 

413^ 

1352 . 7 

IM 

1.227 

10 

78.54 

23 

415.48 

42 

1385.4 

1% 

1.485 

1034' 

82.52 

23^^ 

433.74 

423/2 

1418  6 

13^ 

1.767 

103^ 

86.59 

24 

452.39 

43 

1452  2 

1^ 

2.074 

lOM 

90.76 

24M 

471.44 

433^ 

1486  2 

IM 

2.405 

11 

95.03 

25 

490.87 

44 

1520  5 

VA 

2.761 

1134 

99.40 

253/2 

510.71 

443^ 

1555  3 

2 

3.142 

113/2 

103".  87 

26 

530.93 

45 

1590  4 

2M 

3.976 

1134 

108.48 

26M 

551 . 55 

453^ 

1626.0 

2K 

4.909 

12 

113.10 

27 

572 . 56 

46 

1661  9 

2% 

5.940 

12M 

117.86 

27^ 

593.96 

463^ 

1698  2 

3 

7.069 

123^ 

122.72 

28 

615.75 

47 

1734  9 

3M 

8.296 

12^ 

127.68 

283^ 

637.94 

473^ 

1772.1 

33^ 

9.621 

13 

132 . 73 

29 

660.52 

48 

1809  6 

3M 

11.05 

13M 

137.89 

29^ 

683.49 

483/^ 

1847  5 

4 

12.57 

133^ 

143.14 

30 

7C6.86 

49  " 

1885  7 

4K 

14.19 

13M 

148.49 

30^2 

730.62 

493/2 

1924.4 

43^ 

15.90 

14 

153.94 

31 

754.77 

50 

1963.5 

4% 

17.72 

14M 

159.48 

313^ 

779.31 

503^ 

2003  0 

5 

19.64 

143^ 

165.13 

32 

804.25 

51 

2042 . 8 

534 

21.65 

1434 

170.87 

321/2 

829.58 

513^ 

2083 . 1 

53^ 

23.76 

15 

176.71 

33 

855.30 

52 

2123.7 

5^ 

25.97 

153^ 

182.65 

33H 

881.41 

523/2 

2164.8 

6 

28.27 

15^ 

188.69 

34 

907.92 

53 

2206.2 

6^ 

30.68 

15^ 

194.83 

3434 

934.82 

533^ 

2248.0 

63^ 

33.18 

16 

201.06 

35 

962 . 11 

54 

2290 . 2 

6M 

35.79 

163^ 

213.82 

35K 

989.80 

543^ 

2332  8 

7 

38.49 

17 

226.98 

36 

1017.88 

55 

2375  8 

734 

41.28 

173/^ 

240.53 

363^ 

1046.3 

553^ 

2419.2 

7^ 

44.18 

18 

254.47 

37 

1075.2 

56 

2463.0 

592 


POWER 

(average)  pressure  of  steam  upon  the  piston  which  can  only 
be  determined  by  applying  the  indicator),  and  divide  the 
product  by  33,000,  which  gives  the  actual  horse  power. 

Directions  for  Determining  the  Correct  Setting  of  Engine 
Valves — First,  equalize  travel  in  steam  chest  by  turning 
eccentric  on  shaft  so  throw  is  extreme  one  way,  measuring 
the  port  opening;  then  turn  eccentric  extreme  travel  oppo- 
site, measuring  port  opening  the  same.  If  any  difference, 
divide  it  up  by  lengthening  or  shortening  the  valve  rod  or 
eccentric  rod. 

After  port  openings  are  equal  at  both  ends,  turn  crank 
on  dead  center;  then  turn  eccentric  on  shaft  so  valve  opens 
the  port  at  the  end  of  cylinder  where  piston  is  located,  about 
1-16  opening  or  lead.  Fasten  eccentric  to  shaft ;  then  turn  on 
the  other  dead  center,when  opening  or  lead  should  be  the  same. 

In  determining  which  way  an  engine  is  to  run,  bear  in 
mind  the  crank  pin  ahvays  follows  the  throw  of  the  eccentric. 

Electrical  Horse  Power — The  quantity  of  electricity 
flowing  in  a  wire  per  second  is  measured  in  units  called  the 
ampere.  The  electrical  pressure  producing  the  flow^  is 
measured  in  volts,  while  the  powxr  an  electrical  current  is 
capable  of  producing  is  equal  to  the  product  of  amperes  and 
volts  and  is  measured  in  units  called  the  watt.  One  watt  is 
equal  to  one  ampere  multiplied  by  one  volt.  A  kilowatt  is 
1000  watts. 

The  same  work  can  be  done  with  great  current  strength 
and  low  e.  m.  f.  or  with  small  current  and  high  e.  m.  f.  For 
instance,  100  amperes,  times  10  volts,  equals  1000  watts;  or 
10  amperes,  times  100  volts,  equals  1000  watts. 

One  electrical  horse  power  equals  746  watts;  hence,  the 
electrical  work  of  a  dynamo  may  be  expressed: 

amperes  X  volts 

h.  p.    =    

746 

593 


POWER 

The  mechanical  horse  power  necessary  to  drive  a  dynamo 
is  generally  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  higher  than  the  electrical 
horse  power  yielded  by  the  dynamo. 

For  Every-day  Use  in  an  Engine  Room — To  find 
diameter  of  cylinder  for  a  given  power: 

Multiply  horse  power  of  engine  by  33,000.  Divide 
product  by  the  product  of  cylinder  area  x  steam  pressure  x 
piston  speed  in  feet  per  minute. 

Rule  for  finding  contents  in  cubic  feet  of  a  cylinder  of 
any  given  diameter. 

Multiply  the  square  of  diameter  in  inches  by  .7854 
and  this  product  by  length  of  stroke  in  inches.  Divide  last 
product  by  1728,  and  the  result  is  contents  of  cylinder  in 
cubic  feet. 

The  diameter  of  the  valve  rod  should  be  1-10  to  1-12 
of  the  cylinder  diameter,  or  from  1-350  to  1-300  of  unbal- 
anced area  of  slide  valve.  This  last  is  considering  the 
valve  as  a  piston.  vSteel  rods,  of  course,  will  bear  being  made 
smaller. 

Don't  depend  too  much  upon  the  glass  gauge,  but  try 
the  cocks  often  enough  to  keep  your  hand  in  in  telling  the 
height  of  water  by  them.  If  a  gauge  cock  has  a  tendency 
to  leak,  fix  it  thoroughly;  if  you  do  not  you  will  neglect  to 
use  it  for  fear  of  the  work  which  you  may  have  to  stop  the 
leak  after  using. 

vSafety  valves  should  be  allowed  to  blow  straight  out 
into  the  room  and  should  not  be  hitched  on  to  a  leading 
pipe  which  may  allow  water  to  stand  on  the  valve,  increasing 
its  weight,  or  be  liable  to  freeze  if  the  boiler  is  laid  up.  When 
the  valve  blows  into  the  room  it  will  be  known  when  steam 
is  escaping,  whether  from  leakage  or  over  pressure. 

The  economy  of  an  engine  should  always  be  rated  by 
the  amount  of  steam  or  water  which  it  consumes  per  horse 
power  per  hour.  The  amount  of  coal  burnt  per  horse  power 
per  hour  involves  the  economy  of  the  whole  plant,  and  is 

594 


POWER 


not  a  measure  of  the  performance  of  the  engine  taken  in- 
dependently. 

Horizontal  engines,  when  practicable,  should  be  run 
over  rather  than  under,  as  the  thrust  will  then  come  down- 
ward upon  the  foundation  rather  than  upon  the  caps  of  the 
boxes  and  the  upper  guides. 

In  calculating  horse  powers  of  steam  boilers,  consider 
for: 

Tubular  boilers,  15  square  feet  of  heating  surface, 
equivalent  to  1  horse  power. 

Portable  boilers,  12  square  feet  of  heating  surface, 
equivalent  to  1  horse  power. 

Cylinder  boilers,  10  square  feet  of  heating  surface, 
equivalent  to  1  horse  power. 


Fig.  23£— BOILER   IXSTALLATIO.W 
595 


PART    EIGHTEEN 

Miscellaneous 

CAPACITIES  OF  OIL  LINES— CAPACITIES  OF  TANKS 
—SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  OF  LIQUIDS— WEIGHT 
AND  TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  WOOD,  IRON- 
WEIGHT  OF  ROUND  IRON  AND  STEEL  RODS- 
MELTING  POINT  OF  METALS— WOOD  FUEL 
EQUIVALENTS  —  CONVERSION  TABLES, 
METRIC  TO  U.  S.— NATURAL  GAS  ASSOCIA- 
TION. 

Tank  for  Separating  Gas  from  Oil  Flowing  from  Well — 

Tanks  are  often  used  on  oil  leases  showing  large  quantities 
of  gas  where  the  oil  flows  or  is  pumped.  The  gas  taken  from 
the  oil  is  of  first-class  quality  to  run  a  gas  engine  at  the 
power  house,  or  could  be  "squeezed"  to  extract  the  gasoline, 


Fig.  233     A  UTOMA  TIC  OIL  AND  GAS  SEPARA  TOR 
596 


MISCELLANEOUS 


provided  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity  of  gas  to  make  it  pay. 
The  separating  tank  should  be  set  high  enough  to  allow  the 
oil,  after  separation,  to  flow  freely  to  the  regular  oil  tanks. 


Fig.  234— A    I^L'R-MXU  OIL    WELL    l\    THE   CADDO  OIL    FIELD    ^LA.) 


597 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Number  of  Barrels  (3V  •?  Gallons)  Contained  in  Tanks 


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598 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Fig.  J.JoSAME   WELL  AS  Fig.  334- 
The  fire  teas  extinguished  by  digging  a  tunnel  to  the  well  at  a  safe  depth,  bolting  a 
saddle  on  the  casing  and  laying  a  lead  line  off  to  a  safe  distance,  after  which 
the  casing  was  lapped  with  the  aid  of  smaller  line  used  as  a  drill  stem 
working  through  the  lead  line.      The  gate  on  top  of  the  casing 
was  partially  closed  at  the  time  the  well  caught  fire 
which  created  a  back  pressure  and  assist- 
ed in  forcing  the  oil  through 
lead  line 


599 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Melting  Point  and  Expansion  of  Metals 


Substance 

Melting  Point 

Lineal  Expansion 
of  Metals 

Produced    bv    raising 

Deg.  fahr. 

their  temperature 
from  32  to  212  deg. 

Kent 

Aluminum 

1247     (1157) 

Bronze 

1652     (1692) 

Copper 

2102     (1929) 

One  part  in    581 

Gold 

2192     (1913) 

'      682 

Cast  Iron 

1922  to  2382 

'      812 

Wrought  Iron 

2732  to  2912 

'      812 

Lead '  . 

(618) 

'     351 

Platinum 

3227 

'    1100 

Silver 

1832     (1733) 

'      524 

Steel 

2372  to  2552 

Tin 

540     (442) 

'      403 

Zinc 

786     (779) 

'      322 

Beaume  Scale  and  Specific  Gravity  Equivalent — The  in- 
struments used  are  a  hydrometer  and  a  standard  thermo- 
meter. The  hydrometer,  which  is  a  glass  column  marked 
with  graduations  from  10  to  100,  was  invented  by  Antoine 
Beaume,  a  French  chemist,  and  the  scale  on  the  instrument 
has  always  borne  his  name.  The  hydrometer,  when  placed 
in  a  jar  or  a  bottle  of  oil,  sinks  to  the  point  on  the  scale  which 
indicates  the  gravity  in  degrees  Beaume.  The  basis  of  tem- 
perature for  testing  oil  is  60  deg.  fahr.,  and  for  oil  at  a  greater 
or  less  temperature  variations,  must  be  calculated.  Hydro- 
meters are  usually  provided  with  a  special  scale  for  figuring 
temperature  variations.  The  specific  gravity  is  found  by 
dividing  140  by  130  plus  the  Beaume  degrees.  For  example: 
if  the  hydrometer  registers  30  deg.,  this  added  to  130  equals 
160,  which  divided  into  140,  shows  specific  gravity  .875  deg. 

600 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Following  is  a  table  sho\vin< 


Beaume  degrees,  specific 
gravity  and  weight  per  gallon  of  oil  of  60  deg.  fahr: 


Beaame 

Specific 

hh.  in 

Beaame 

Specific 

Lb.  in 

Beaume 

Specific 

Lb.  in 

Degrees 

Gravity 

Gallon 

Degrees 

Gravity   • 

Gallon 

Degrees 

Gravity 

Gallon 

10 

1.0000 

8.33 

37 

0.8383 

6.99 

64 

0.7216 

6.03 

11 

0.9929 

8.27 

38 

0.8333 

6.95 

65 

0.7179 

6  00 

12 

0.9859 

8.21 

39 

0.8284 

6.91 

66 

0.7142 

5  97 

13 

0.9790 

8.16 

40 

0.8235 

6.87 

67 

0.7106 

5.94 

14 

0.9722 

8.10 

41 

0.8187 

6.83 

68 

0 . 7070 

5.91 

15 

0.9655 

8.05 

42 

0.8139 

6.80 

69 

0.7035 

5.88 

16 

0.9589 

7.99 

43 

0.8092 

6.76 

70 

0.7000 

5.85 

17 

0.9523 

7.94 

44 

0.8045 

6.72 

71 

0.6965 

5.82 

18 

0.9459 

7.88 

45 

0.8000 

6.68 

72 

0.6930 

5.79 

19 

0.9395 

7.83 

46 

0.7954 

6  64 

73 

0.6896 

5,77 

20 

0.9333 

7.78 

47 

0 . 7909 

6.60 

74 

0.6863 

5.74 

21 

0.9271 

7.73 

48 

0.7865 

6.57 

75 

0.6829 

5.71 

22 

0.9210 

7.68 

49 

0.7821 

6.53 

76 

0.6796 

5.68 

23 

0,9150 

7.63 

50 

0.7777  ' 

6.49   ' 

77 

0  6763 

5.65 

24 

0.9090 

7.58 

51 

0 . 7734 

6.46 

78 

0.6730 

5.63 

25 

0.9032 

7.54 

52 

0.7692 

6.42 

79 

0 . 6698 

5,60 

26 

0.8974 

7.49 

53 

0 . 7650 

6.39 

80 

0.6666 

5,57 

27 

0.8917 

7.44 

54 

0.7608 

6.36 

81 

0.6635 

5,55 

28 

0.8860 

7.39 

55 

0.7567 

6.32 

82 

0 . 6604 

5,51 

29 

0.8805 

7.34 

56 

0.7526 

6.29   i 

83 

0,6573 

5,48 

30 

0.8750 

7.29 

57 

0.7486 

6.26 

84 

0.6542 

5.45 

31 

0.8695 

7.25 

58 

0.7446 

6.22 

85 

0.6511 

5,42 

32    ■ 

0.8641 

7.21 

59 

0.7407 

6.19 

86 

0 . 6481 

5.40 

33 

0.8588 

7.16 

60 

0 . 7368 

6.16 

87 

0.6451 

5,38 

34 

0.8536 

7.12 

61 

0.7329 

6.13 

88 

0.6422 

5.36 

35 

0.8484 

7.07 

62 

0.7290  i 

6.10 

89 

0 . 6392 

5  33 

36 

0.8433 

7  03 

63 

0.7253 

6.07 

90 

0  6363 

5  30 

MISCELLANEOUS 


Specific  Gravities  of  Liquids  at  60  Deg.  Fahr. 


Liquid 

Specific      j 
Gravity 

Liquid 

Specific 
Gravity 

Rigolene 

Naptha 

Naptha  No.  2 

Sulphuric  Ether  .  .  . 

Alcohol  (pure) 

Refined  Petroleum. 

Alcohol  (957c) 

Turpentine 

.625 
.690 
.707 
.720 
.794 
.805 
.816 
.870 

Olive  Oil 

Rape  Oil 

Linseed  Oil 

.92 
.92 
94 

Water 

1  00 

Muriatic  Acid 

Nitric  Acid 

Sulphuric  Acid 

IMercurv. ... 

1.20 

1.22 

1.85 

13  58 

Weight  and  Tensile   Strength  of  Wood,  Iron  and   Other 

Materials 


Material 


White  Ash 

Hickory 

Chestnut 

Hemlock 

White  Oak 

Red  Oak 

Yellow  Pine...  . 
Oregon  Pine.  .  . 
Norway  Pine.. . 

White  Pine 

Redwood 

Spruce  

Whitewood 

Walnut 

Cast  Iron 

Malleable  Iron. 

Copper 

Aluminum 

Wrought  Iron. . 
Wrought  Steel. 

Iron  Pipe 

Steel  Pipe 

Cement 

Sand 

Limestone 


Weight  per 

Tensile  Strength 

Cubic  Foot 

Pounds  per 

Pounds 

Square  Inch 

38 

11000 

53 

12800 

41 

10500 

25 

8700 

48 

10500 

40 

10000 

45 

12600 

40 

12000 

341/2 

11000 

25 

10000 

7000 

125 

10000 

8500 

38 

9286 

450 

15000  to  24000 

450 

25000  to  35000 

550 

20000  to  30000 

167 

15000  to  24000 

485 

40000  to  50000 

490 

60000  to  80000 

35000  to  45000 

50000  to  65000 

75  to  90 

350 

115 

168 

602 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Weights  of  Round  Iron  and  Steel  per  Lineal  Foot  in  Pounds 


Size  in  Inches 

Iron 

Steel 

yi 

.164 

.167 

A 

.256 

.261 

% 

.368 

.375 

.501 

.511 

Yi 

.654 

.667 

XE 

.828 

.845 

5^ 

1.023 

1.043 

16 

1.237 

1.262 

/€ 

1.473 

1.502 

% 

2.004 

2.044 

1 

2.618 

2.67 

IVs 

3.313 

3.379 

IM 

4.091 

4.173 

1^ 

4.95 

5.049 

13^ 

5.09 

6.008 

1^ 

6.913 

7.051 

IM 

8.018 

8.078 

VA 

9.204 

9.388 

2 

10.470 

10.679 

23^ 

11.820 

12.056 

2M 

13.250 

13.515 

2^ 

14.770 

15.065 

234 

16.36 

16.69 

2^ 

18.04 

18.40 

2M 

19.8 

20.2 

2J^ 

21.64 

22.07 

3 

23.56 

24.03 

Conversion     Tables 

COMPOUND  UNITS 

Metric  to  U.  S. 

1  kilogram  per  meter=0.6720  lb.  per  foot. 

1  kilogram  per  sq.  centimeter=14.223  lb.  per  sq.  inch. 

1  kilogram  per  sq.  meter=0.2048  lb.  per  sq.  foot. 

1  kilogram  per  cubic  meter=0.0624  lb.  per  cu.  ft. 

1  kilogram-meter=7.233  foot  pounds. 

1  chevel  vapeur  (metric  h.  p.)  =0.986  horsepower. 

1  kilowatt  =1.340  horsepower. 

1  kilo,  per  chevel=^2.235  lb.  per  h.  p. 


U.  S.  to  Metric 

1  lb.  per  ft. =1.4882  kilograms  per  meter. 

1  lb.  per  sq.  inch=0.0703  kilograms  per  sq.  centimeter. 


603 


MISCELLANEOUS 


U.S.  to  Metric — Continued 

1  lb.  per  sq.  ft.  =4.8825  kilograms  per  sq.  meter. 

1  lb.  per  cu.  ft. =16.0192  kilograms  per  cu.  meter. 

1  foot  pound=. 01383  kilogram-meter. 

1  horsepower=l.C14  chevel-vapeur  (metric  h.  p.) 

1  horsepower=0.746  kilowatt. 

1  lb.  per  horse  power  =0.447  kilos  per  chevel. 

MEASURES  OF  HEAT. 

Heat  Intensity 

Temp.  Centigrade  (temp.  fahr. — 32  deg.)  5/9. 
Temp,  fahrenheit  (temp.  C.  x  95=32  deg.) 

Heat  Quantity 
A  kilogram  calorie=3.968  British  thermal  units. 
A  pound  calorie=1.8  British  thermal  units. 
A  British  thermal  unit=0.252  kilogram  calorie. 
A  British  thermal  unit=0.555  pound  calorie. 

MEASURES  OF  VOLUME  AND  CAPACITY 

Metric  to  U.  S. 

1  cu.  centimeter=0.061  cu.  inch. 

]  cu.  meter=35.316  cu.  feet. 

1  cu.  meter^l.308  cu.  yards. 

1  liter  1  cu.  decimeter=61.023  cu.  inch. 

Liquid  Measure 
1  liter=1.0567  quart. 
1  liter=0.2642  gallon. 
1  cu.  meter=264.17  gallon. 

Dry  Measure 
1  liter=0.908  quart. 
1  hectoliter=2.8375  bushels. 

U.  S.  to  Metric 

1  cu.  inch=16.39  cu.  centimeters. 
1  cu.  ft. =0.0283  cu.  meter. 
1  cu.  yd. =0.7645  cu.  meter. 
1  cu.  ft. =28.32  liters. 

Liquid  Measure 
1  quart=0.9463  liters. 
1  gallon=3.7854  gallons. 
1  gallon=0.0038  cu.  meter. 

Dry  ^Measure 
1  quart=1.1013  liters. 
1  bushel=0.3524  hectoliters. 

604 


MISCELLANEOUS 


WEIGHTS 

Metric  to  U.  S. 

1  milligram=0.0154  grain. 

1  gram=]5.432  grain. 

1  kilogram=2.2046  lb.  (avoir.) 

1  metric  ton=1.1023  net  tons. 

1  metric  ton=0.9842  gross  tons. 

U.  S.  to  Metric 

1  grain=64.80  milligrams. 
1  grain=0.0647  gram. 
1  lb.  (avoir.)  =0.4536  kilogram. 
1  net  ton=0.9076  metric  ton. 
1  gross  ton=1.0161  metric  ton. 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH 

Metric  to  U.  S. 

1  millimeter  =  0.03937  inch. 
1  centimeter^  0.3937  inch. 
1  meter  =39.37        inch. 

1  meter  =  3.2808  feet. 

]  kilometer  =  0.6214  mile. 

r.  5.  to  Metric 

1  inch  =2bA  millimeters. 
1  inch  =  2.54  centimeters. 
1  inch  =  0.0254  meter. 
1  foot  =  0.3048  meter. 
1  mile  =  1.609  kilometers. 

Measures  of  Surface 

Metric  to  U.  S. 

1  sq.  millimeter=  C. 00155  sq.  inch. 
1    "       centimeter=  0.155  "       " 
1     "       meter  =10.764  "   ft. 

1    "        "  =  1.196  "   yds. 

1  hectare  ^  2.471  acres. 

1         "  =  0.00386 sq.  mile. 

1  sq.  kilometer       =  0.3861      " 

U.  S.  to  Metric 

1  sq.  inch  =645.14      sq.  millimeters. 

1    "        "  =     6.452      "  centimeters. 

1    "    foot  =    0.0929    "    meter. 

1    "    yard  =    0.8361    " 

1  acre  =     0.4047  hectares. 

1  sq.  mile  =259.00 

1    "        "  =     2.59  sq.  kilometers. 


1 

40 

if 

122 

'5 

3 

50 

30 

- 

m 

m 

90 
80 
70 

= 

=  iio: 

:^0 

=  ia- 

=  9o: 

E- 

20 

= 

rz 

-30 

=  60: 
=  60: 

=20 

10 

— 

— 

60 
50 

1 

=10 

0 

— 

— 

40 

3f. 

1 

=  4o: 

=  0 

10 

=  ao  = 
=  10: 
=  0  - 

=10 

E 

30 
%0 

10 

1 

~  £%e\ 

20 

= 

0_ 
10 

1 

=  10: 

=  30- 

-SO 

=80 

20 

= 

— 

1 

1 

605 


MISCELLANEOUS 

The  Natural  Gas  Association — The  first  promoters  of 
the  Natural  Gas  Association  of  America  were  C.  W.  Sears, 
K.  M.  Mitchel  and  M.  M.  Sweetman.  The  first  organization 
meeting  was  held  at  the  Midland  Hotel  in  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
February  20,  1906,  and  the  following  officers  were  duly 
elected :    . 

President,  K.  M.  Mitchel,  St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

Vice-President,  M.  M.  Sweetman,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Treasurer,  C.  H.  Pattison,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Secretary,  J.  H.  Dunkel,  Lawrence,  Kas. 

The  ssAociation  started  with  30  charter  members.  The 
first  annual  meeting  was  held  at  the  Midland  Hotel,  Kansas 
City,  Mo.,  June  12-13,  1906.  Successive  meetings  have  been 
held  in  Joplin,  Mo.,  Kansas  City,  Oklahoma  City,  Pittsburg, 
Kansas  City,  Cleveland,  O.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  the  last  at 
Cincinnati,  O.,  in  1915. 

There  were  about  seven  hundred  members  at  the  date 
of  the  last  meeting. 

The  dues  are:  Active  membership,  $5.00  per  year; 
junior  membership,  $3.00  per  year. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

A  and  B  tables 223 

Abandoned  gas  wells 172 

Accuracy   of  large   capacity 

meter,  range  of 362 

Acreage    controlled    bj-    gas 

companies 74 

Air 76 

Air  in  casing  head  gas 544 

Air,  weight  of 67 

Alcohol  as  a  solvent 538 

Allen  and  Stanton  limestones. 37 
Altitudes    and    atmospheric 

pressures 64 

Ammonia   refrigerating  ma- 
chine  570 

Analyses  of  gases  from  clefts 

of  lava  of  Vesuvius 106 

— German  Springs 105 

— rivers,  lakes  and  marshes.  104 

— various  gas  fields 96-101 

— volcanoes  and  geysers.  .  .106 
Analyses  of  European  gas. .  .  .103 

— gas  from  gasoline 531 

— gas  for  gasoline  content.  .534 
Analysis  of  California  gas.  .  .102 

Anah^zing  natural  gas. . . ! 80 

Anah-zing  of  stack  gas 505 

Anchor 154 

Angle  couplings 206 

Application  for  gas  form 439 

Application   for  gas  service 

form 438 

Areas  of  circles 592 

Artificial  gas,  first  use  of 58 

Atmosphere 64-67 

Atmospheric  pressure 66 

Bases  of  measurement  of  gas  .173 

Beaume  scale 600 

Bending   pipe 196,  201 

Bethany  limestone 36 

Blasting 188 

Blow-ofi"s  and  drips 215 

Boiler  burners 486 

—draft 496 

— draft  gauge 498 

—failures 500 

— gas  pressure 506 


PAGE 

Boiler  burners  (cont.) 

—installation 489,  493,  496 

— operation  of 498 

— results 506 

— sampling  stack  gas 505 

— stack  gas  analysis 505 

— temperature  of  combus- 
tion  486 

— testing 500 

■ — testing  burners 505 

—tests 507 

— use  of  steam 492 

Booster 337 

Boyle's  law 386 

Boyle,  Robert 385 

Break  in  high  pressure  line.  .213 

British  heat  units 82 

— thermal  units 82 

Bull  rope 129 

Bull  wheel 129 

Burner  tests 475 

Burnt  gases,  condensation  in  .481 

By-pass 373 

By-pass,  regulator 401 

California  combination  rig..  .119 

— heavy  rig 124 

—rig 117 

— rotary  rig 127 

Calorimeter,  Hinman-Junker  .83 

Candle  power 82 

Capacities  of  domestic  meters453 

— orifice  meters 353 

— orifice  well  tester 546 

— pipes 234 

—pipe  lines 236-324 

— under     minus     pressure 

conditions 549 

— tanks 598 

— thin  oriftces 435 

Capping  gas  well 164 

Carbon  black 485 

—dioxide 77 

Carbonic  oxide 77 

Care  of  gas  wells 166 

— regulators 400 

Casing,  table  of  sizes 134 

Charles,  Jacques  C.  C 386 


INDEX 


pa(;e 

Charles  law 386 

Cherokee  shales 34 

Circles,  areas  of 592 

Circulating  water 511 

Cleaning    a    large    capacity 

meter 373 

Cleaning  gas  wells 154 

Coal  gas. .  • 78 

Coke  oven  gas 80 

Combustible  gas  mixtures 79 

Commercial  gas  analyses 79 

Comparative  costs  of  horse 

power 511 

—fuel  values 483 

Comparison    of   domestic 

meter  bills 480 

Complaint  meter 469 

Complete   string   of   drilling 

tools 130 

Compression    and    liquefica- 

tion  of  constitutents  of 

gas 543 

Compression  of  gas 325 

Compressor     station,     horse 

power,  etc 337 

Condensation 376 

— in  meters 567 

— of  gasoline  from  natural 

gas 520 

— of     water     from     burnt 

gases 481 

Conductor  pipe,  wood 133 

Construction  camp 185 

— of  gasoline  plant 568 

— of  low  pressure  system.  .  .406 

Consumption  of  gas 68-72 

Continuous  meter  reading.  .  .453 

Conversion  tables 603 

Cooking  with  gas  when  pres- 
sure is  low 479 

Core  drill 143 

Correction  of  erratic  meters.  .466 

Corsicana  field 47 

Covering  pipe 207 

Creeks    and    rivers,    laying 

pipe  in 196 

— water     soaked     ground. 

laying  pipe  in 206 

Cubic  foot  bottle 464 

Daily  peak  load 404 

Deepest  drilled  wells 59-62 

609 


PAGE 

Demonstration  of  mud  laden 

fluid  at  Greis  well 137 

Density   changes    in    gas 

volumes 387 

Derrick    and    drilling    outfit 

with  list  of  parts 112 

—or  rig 109 

Description  of  compression.   325 
— low  pressure  system 403 

Diaphragm  oil 460 

—regulator 399 

Differential  gauges 426 

— pressure 454 

Dimensions  of  drive  pipe.  .  .  .131 
—pipe 190 

Ditching 187 

Domestic  meter 449 

— bills,  comparison  of 480 

— capacity  of 453 

— complaint  meter 469 

— consumers,     suggestions 

to 477 

— continuous  reading 453 

— cubic  foot  bottle 464 

— deposit  card  form 440 

— diaphragm  oil 460 

— differential  pressure 454 

— disconnecting 455 

— erratic  meters 466 

—flat  rate 448 

— installation  record 440 

— installing 454 

— multipliers    for   correct- 
ing erratic  meters 468 

— postal  card  bill 442 

— prover 463 

— proving 458 

— rating  of  tin  meters 462 

— reading 451 

— reader's  record  sheet 441 

— repairing 459 

— setting  valves 460 

— tin  meter  parts 462 

Double  tug  rig 114 

Draft 496 

— gauge  498 

Drain  cocks  376 

Drilling 131 

— outfit  with  list  of  parts     112 

— tools 130 

— wells  in  Lake  Erie 145 

Drips 215 


INDEX 


PAGE 
Drive  pipe,  table  of  sizes.  .  .  .131 
Dry  holes 159 

Early    geological   history    of 
western  New  York  and 

Ontario 30 

Earth's  formation  briefly  told.  .1 
Effects  of  weather  conditions 
on  manufacturing  gaso- 
line  582 

Efficiency  of  current  heaters.  .518 

Electra  field 46 

Electrical  horse  power 593 

Electrolysis 414 

— ordinance 417 

— remedial  measures 417 

Electrolytic  mitigating  sys- 
tem  414 

Elevators 159 

Equivalents     of     ounces     in 

inches  or  water  pressure. 427 

Erratic  meters 466 

Ethane .  .  .77 

Evaporation  losses  in  gasoline578 
Every    day    use    in    engine 

room 594 

Exhaust  pipe 510 

Expansion  of  metals 600 

— or  contraction  of  gas.  .  .  .386 
Experiments    in    liquefying 

crude  natural  gas 532 

Explosive    mixture     of    gas 

from  Petrolia  field 81 

— paraffin  gases 577 

Facts  and  figures  about  in- 
dustrial consumption  of 

gas 484 

Failures  with  boiler  burners .  .  500 

Field  testing  of  meters 378 

Fire  alarm  in  gas  office 419 

Fires   on  high   pressure   gas 

line 213 

First  oil  well 56 

— use  of  artificial  gas 58 

Fittings  and  gates 218 

Flat  rate  system 448 

Flow  of  gas  in  pipe  lines.  235-324 
Foreman's  report  blank.  445-447 


PAGE 

Formula  for  determining  the 
quantity  of  gas  when 
measured  above  normal 

pressure 389 

Formulas  for  pipe  line  capa- 
cities  222 

Fort  Scott  limestone 35 

Freak  gas  well 62 

Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  natural  gas 

in 58 

Friction 222 

Fuel  values,  comparison  of. .  .482 
Funnel  meter .378 

Gas  analyses  from  California .  102 
— clefts  in  lava  of  Vesuvius.  106 

— European  gas 103 

• — German  springs 105 

— rivers,  lakes,  etc 104 

— various  fields 96-101 

— volcanoes  and  geysers. . .  .106 

Gas  application  form 439 

— bearing  strata 48 

—bills 472 

— combustion,  temperature 

of 486 

— condensates,  solution  of.  .577 

Gas  engine — 

— amount  of  gas  required.  .509 

— circulating  water 511 

— current  heaters 517 

— exhaust 510 

— horse  power 509 

— operating  cost 511 

— size  of  service 510 

— size  of  supply  pipe 510 

— table     of     efficiency     of 

current  heaters 518 

Gaskets 327 

Gasoline  gas — 

— air  in  casing  head  gas ....  544 
— ammonia   refrigerating 

machine 570 

—analysis 531,  534 

— analyses  from  different 
stages  of  plant  opera- 
tion  574 

— capacities  of  orifice  well 

tester 546 

— chart  of  hydrocarbons.  .  .533 
• — compression    and   lique- 
fication 543 


610 


INDEX 


C.asoline  gas  {cont. ) 
— condensation  in  meters.  .567 
— construction  of  plant  . .  .  .568 
— effects  of  weather  condi- 
tions  582 

— evaporation  losses 578 

— experiments   in    liquefy- 
ing crude  natural  gas.  .532 

— explosive  limits 577 

— gasoline  gas  industry.  .  .  .520 

— gas  relief  regulators 573 

— hauling 579 

— heat    values    of    lighter 

hydrocarbons 575 

— laboratory    tests    of 

samples  of  gas 575 

—lighting  plant 573 

—market 580 

— measuring 563 

— operating  costs 582 

— orifice  well  tester 545 

— Orsat  apparatus 538 

— pipe  line  capacities.  .549-563 
— pressure     generated     by 

heating  gasoline 580 

— production  of  gasoline.  .  .529 
— proper     size     meter     to 

measure 5()5 

— properties  of  seven  para- 
ffin hydrocarbons 539 

— regulations  for  shipping.  .583 

— regulators 573 

— safety  valves 582 

— shipping 582 

— solution   of  gas  conden- 
sates  577 

— specific  gravity  and  ab- 
sorption numbers 576 

—multipliers 563 

—outfit 539 

— testing  meters 568 

— tests  for  grade  and  quan- 
tity of  gasoline 543 

— three    commercial     pro- 
cesses  543 

— use  of  alcohol  as  a  sol- 
vent  538 

— vapor  condensed  by  com- 

I)ression 573 

— volume  and  pressure  re- 
cording gauge 566 

611 


i'A(;E 
Gas  pressure  in  boiler  burn- 
ers. . 506 

— proving  pump  and  gauge. 430 

— range  tests 475 

— relief  regulator 573 

— service  application  form. 438 

Gas  well,  care  of 166 

—drip 164 

— freak 62 

— lead  lines 166 

—testing 183 

— working  capacity  of 176 

Gates  and  fittings 218 

Gauge  alarm 419 

Gauges 219,424,  426 

Geological  chart 5 

—formation  of  the  U.  S 2 

— history  of  western  New 

York  and  Ontario 30 

Geology  of  Mid-continental 

gas  field 31-55 

Go-devil 154 

Grinding  regulator  valves.  .  .401 

Hauling 189,200 

— gasoline 579 

Healdton  area 46 

Heaters,  sheet  iron 400 

Heat  facts 94 

Heating  regulators 401 

— value  and  specific  gravity. 86 
— with  gas  when  pressure 

is  low 479 

Heat  radiation 95 

— units,  British 82 

— units,   values  of  lighter 

hydrocarbons 581 

High  gas  bills 472 

— pressure  line  leakage 210 

— pressure  regulators 397 

— pressure  taps 217 

Hinman-Junker  calorimeter. .  .83 

History 57-62 

Horizons  of  natural  gas 50 

Horse  power 589-591 

— areas  of  circles 592 

— comparative  costs  of  .  .  .  .511 

— electrical 593 

— every  day  use  in  engine 

room 594 

— gas  engines 509 

— setting  engine  valves.  .  .  .593 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Horsepower  (cont.) 

— steam 590 

— to  find  horse  power 593 

House  heating  tests 476 

— piping 428 

—regulators 220.  400 

Hydraulic  rotary  rig 123 

Hydrocarbons 78 

— in  light  and  heavy  gases. 533 

Hydrogen 76 

niuminants 78 

niuminating     properties     of 

gas 87 

Incandescent  mantles 481 

Income 436 

Index  of  regulator  parts 398 

Indicated     horse     power    of 

compressors 333 

Inspection  and  leaks 207 

— of  gas  line 209 

Installation  of  boiler  burn- 
ers  489,493,496 

— form,  domestic  meter.  .  .  ,440 
Installing  domestic  meter. .    .454 

— large  capacity  meter 366 

Installing  regulators 399 

Intermediate  regulators 397 

lola  limestone 36 

Iron,  weight  of 602 

Jack  squib 154 

Laboratory  tests  of  gasoline 

gas 575 

Lane  shales 37 

Large  capacity  meter 358 

— by-pass 373 

— cleaning 373 

— condensation 376 

— drain  cocks 376 

—field  testing 377 

—gaskets 377 

—installation 366-372 

— lighting  station 376 

— measuring   compressed 

air 380 

— over  capacity 367 

— pressure  testing 367 

— proper  size  meter  for 
measuring  high  and 
low  pressure  gas 365 


PAGE 

Large  capacity  meter  (cont.) 

— proving 367 

— range  of  accuracy 362 

— table    of    pressures    for 

proving 368 

—to  read 377 

— turning  gas  into  a  meter.  .374 

Lawrence  shales 37 

Laying  pipe  in  level  country . .  194 

— rough  countrv 194 

—line ' 191-202 

Lead  lines 166 

Leaks 414 

Lease 107 

Lighting  gasoline  plants 573 

— measuring  stations 376 

Lights 476 

Line  loss  percentage 209 

— pipe  dimensions 191 

—walking 209 

Liquids,  specific  gravity  of. .  .602 
Low    pressure    system,     de- 
scription of 403 

—basis 387 

— building  regulator  station411 

— construction  of 406 

— daily  peak  load 404 

— differential  gauge 426 

— electrolytic   mitigating. 

system 414 

— electrolysis 414 

— electrolysis  ordinance. .  .  .417 
—  electrolysis    remedial 

measures 417 

— equivalents   of   pressure 

in  inches  of  water 427 

— fire  alarm  in  office 419 

— gauge  alarm 419 

— gauges 424 

— leaks 414 

— main  marker 410 

— mapping 406 

— monthly  peak  load 405 

— oil  safety  tank 412 

— peak  load 406 

— purifiers 423 

—regulators 398 

— safety  valves 423 

— regulator  stations 410 

— siphon  or  U  gauges 424 

— size  of  mains 406 

— stealing  gas 419 

612 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Low  pressure  system  (cont.) 
— table    of    capacities    of 

mains 407 

—testing 413 

— turning  gas  into 413 

— welding  gas  mains 408 

— wireless  pipe  locator 421 

Main  marker 410 

— size  of 406 

Mantles,  incandescent 481 

Mapping 406 

Maps     of     Mid-continental 

field 43-45 

Mariotte,  Edmond 385 

Mariotte's  law 386 

Market  for  gasoline 580 

Measurement    of    gas    with 

Pitot  tube 339 

Measuring  compressed  air.  .  .  .380 

— gasoline  gas 560 

Melting  point  of  metals 600 

Mercury     float     differential 

gauge 355 

— pressure 427 

Metals,  contraction  of 600 

— -melting  point  of 600 

Meter  deposit  record 440 

— prover 463 

— reader's  record  sheet 441 

Methane 77 

Minute  pressure  tables 178 

Mississippian  floor 32 

Monthly  peak  load 405 

Mud  laden  fluid  demonstra- 
tion  137 

Multipliers  for  different  spe- 
cific gravities 234 

— erratic  meters 468 

Multiplier  tables 391 

Natural  gas ...  * 78 

— analyses 80 

— Association 606 

— bases  of  measurement.       173 

— consumption  of 68-72 

—history 57-62 

— horizons 50 

— in  Fredonia.  N.  Y 58 

—Origin  of 3.  6-30 

— production  of 68-72 

— properties  of 87 


PAGE 

Natural  gas  icont.) 
— reservoirs   in    North 

America.  .48 

— statistics 68-75 

— weight  of 67 

Nitrogen 78 

Nitroglycerin 151 

Notice  requesting  payment      444 

Office  gas  bill  card  form 444 

Oil  gas 78 

—origin  of 3,  6-30 

— safety  tanks 412 

—well,  first 56 

Olifiant  gas 77 

Open   flow    capacity   of   gas 

wells 182 

Operating    cost    of    gasoline 

plant 582 

Operation  of  boiler  burners.   498 

Oread  limestone 38 

Orifice 357 

—meter 348 

— meter  capacities 353 

— well  tester 545 

Origin  of  names  of  New  York 

state  formations 31 

—natural  gas 3,  6-30 

Orsat  apparatus 538 

Over  capacity  of  large  capa- 
city meters 367 

Oxygen 78 

Packer 156 

Painting  pipe 194 

Pawhuska  limestone 39 

Peak  load,  daily 404 

— monthly 405 

Percentage  of  gas  sold  by  the 

month 436 

Permian 40 

Physiological  tests  of  natural 

gas 92 

Pipe  screw — 

—bending 196 

— capacity  of 234 

— dimensions  of 190 

—hauling 189 

— laying 191 

— laying  in  level  country.  194 
— laying  in  rough  countrv.  194 
—line '.  .191 

613 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Pipe  (cont.) 

— painting 194 

— railroad  crossings 198 

— rivers  and  creeks 196 

— stringing 190 

— swabbing 191 

—tallying 189 

— unloading 189 

Pipe  line  formulas 222 

—leakage 210 

— washouts 215 

Pitot,  Henri 338 

—Tube 339.  346 

— Tube     for     testing     gas 

wells 174 

Plain  end  pipe 200 

— angle  couplings 206 

—bending 201 

— covering 207 

— creeks  and  water  soaked 

ground 206 

—hauling 200 

— inspection  and  leaks 207 

—laying 202 

— regulators  and  plain  end 

pipe 400 

— rough  country,  laying  in. 206 

— stringing 201 

Pleasanton  shales 35 

Poisonous    gases   in    natural 

gas,  tests  for 88 

Pole  tool  rig 128 

Pop  valves 423 

Portable  Pitot  Tube 346 

Postal  card  gas  bill  form 443 

Powers 163 

Pressure,  atmospheric 66 

— generated     by     heating 

gasoline 580 

— testing     large     capacity 

meters 367 

— water 135 

Production  of  gas 68-72 

— in  Appalachian  field 75 

— of  gasoline  in  '12  and  '13.529 
Productive  natural  gas  hori- 
zons  50 

Properties   of   gases,   illumi- 
nating  87 

— seven  paraffin  hydrocar- 
bons  539 

Prover 463 


PAGE 

Proving  domestic  meters 458 

— large  capacity  meters. .  .  .367 

Pumping  heads 163 

— powers 163 

Purifiers  for  domestic  service. 423 

Radiation  of  heat 95 

Railroad     crossings,     laying 

pipe  under 198 

Rating  of  tin  meters 462 

Reading  large  capacity  meter. 377 

— domestic  meter 451 

Recording  gauge 

352,  356,  382,  383 

— differential  gauge 352 

— static  pressure  gauge  . .  .  .356 
Reduction    of    pressure    due 

to  fittings 233 

Regulators — 

— building 410 

— by-pass 401 

— care  of 400 

— diaphragms 399 

— gas  relief 573 

— grinding  valves 401 

— heating 401 

— high  pressure 397 

—house 220,  400 

— index  of  parts 398 

—installing 399 

— intermediate 397 

— low  pressure 398 

— plain  end  pipe  and  regu- 
lators  400 

— sheet  iron  heater 400 

— station 410 

Relative    location    of    large 

gas  areas  to  Old  Gulf 3 

Remarkable  gas  reservoirs  in 

North  America 48 

Repairing  domestic  meters.  .  .459 

Reservoirs  of  natural  gas 48 

Rig  or  derrick 109 

Rivers    and    creeks,    laying 

pipe  in 196 

Rock  pressure 183 

Rough  country,  laving  pipe 

in '....' 206 

Round  iron,  weight  of 603 

Rules    and    regulations    for 

house  piping 430 


614 


N     D     E     X 


i'A(.i-; 
Rules  and  Regulations  (  cont. ) 
— of  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  for  shipping 

gasoline 583 

Safety  valves 423 

— for  tank  cars 582 

Salt  water  propositions 168 

vSampling  apparatus 505 

—gas 80 

Sands  in  Cherokee  shales 34 

Separating  tank,  gas  from  oil. 596 

Setting  engine  valves 593 

Service  application 438 

Services  and  house  piping.  .  .   428 
—table  of  sizes  of  drills.  .428 

— tapping 428 

Setting  tin  meter  valves 460 

Sheet  iron  heater 400 

Shipping  gasoline 582 

Shooting 150,  188 

Shot  anchor 154 

— preparing 188 

Size  of  casing 134 

— ^mains 406 

— services  for  gas  engines.  .510 

Small  gas  lines,  laying 198 

Solidified  nitroglycerin 152 

Solution  of  gas  condensates.  .577 
Specifications — California 
combination  standard 

and  rotary  rig 119 

— California  heavy  rig 124 

— California  rig 117 

— California  rotary  rig 127 

— double  tug  rig 114 

Specific  gravity 85,  540 

— and  absorption  numbers. 576 

— Beaume  scale 600 

— and  heating  values 86 

— apparatus 85 

— multipliers 563 

—of  liquids 602 

Stack  gas  analysis 505 

Standard  meter  prover 463 

Static     pressure     recording 

gauge 356 

Statistics  of  natural  gas.  .  .68,  75 

Stealing  gas 419 

vSteam 590 

— horse  power 591 

Steel  pipe 429 

Stove  burner  tests 474 


PA(,E 

vStrata,  gas  bearing 48 

vStrength  of  wood  and  iron  .        602 

String  of  drilling  tools 130 

Stringing  pipe 190,  201 

Structure  of  Mid-continental 

field 44 

vSuggestions   to   domestic 

meter  consumers 477 

— gas  companies 420 

Surveying 185 

Swabbing  pipe 191 

Tables  A  and  B 223 

Table   of  capacities   of   thin 

orifices 435 

— casing  dimensions 134 

— combustible  gas  mixtures. 79 
— commercial  gas  analyses.  .79 
— discharge  of  gas  in  pipe 

lines 407 

— drive  pipe  dimensions.. .  .131 
— flow  of  gas  in  pipe  lines     235 

— line  pipe  dimensions 191 

— multipliers  for  difi"erent 

specific  gravities 234 

— pressures      for     proving 

large  capacity  meters.  .368 
— productive  gas  horizons. .  .51 
— size  of  drills  for  tapping.  .428 

— size  of  tubing 159 

— weight  of  gas  and  air 67 

Tallying 189 

Tank  capacities 598 

— for  separating  gas  from 

oil 596 

Tapping  services 428 

Taps,  high  pressure 217 

Temperature    of    gas    com- 
bustion  486 

— gas  fields 65 

Testing  boilers 509 

— boiler  burners 505 

— gas    well    with    minute 

pressure 178 

— gas  wells  with  Bitot  Tube. 174 

— house  piping 429 

— large  capacity  meter. 377,  568 

— low  pressure  system 413 

Tests  to  determine  poisonous 

gases  in  natural  gas 88 

Thin  orifice  capacities 435 

615 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Tin  meter  capacities 462 

—parts 462 

To  obtain  sample  of  gas 80 

Torpedo 153 

Tubing 156-159 

Turning  gas  into  a  large  ca- 
pacity meter 374 

— low  pressure  system 413 

Unloading  pipe 189 

Use  of  abandoned  gas  wells.  .172 
— alcohol  as  a  solvent 538 

\'apor  condensation  by  com- 
pression  573 

Volcanic   origin   of   gas   and 

oil 6-30 

Volume  and  pressure  record- 
ing gauge 383,  566 

Walking  beam 129 

Water     condensation      from 

burnt  gases 481 


PAGE 

Water  {cont. ) 

—gas 80 

— in  pipe  lines 212 

— in  pipes,  weight  of 135 

— pressure 135 

— pressure  equivalents 427 

— propositions 161 

Waubaunsee  stage 39 

Weight  of  gas  and  air 67 

— round  iron 603 

— water  in  pipes 135 

— wood  and  iron 602 

Welding  gas  mains 408 

Well  connections 161 

—drip 164 

— location 109 

—record 109,  149 

— record  in  the  U.  S 73 

Wichita  Falls  field 46 

Wood  conductor  pipe 133 

—weight  of 602 

Working     capacity     of     gas 

wells 182.  184 


616 


Measurement  of   Gases 
Where  Density  Changes 


BY 

HENRY  P.  WESTCOTT 

Member  A.  S.  M.  E. 


This  book  is  of  special  value  where  Natural  Gas  is 
measured  at  pressures  other  than  "low  pressure". 

CONTAINING 

Full  explanation  of  the  use  of  the  multipliers  as  applied 
to  meter  readings. 

Twelve  sets  of  Multiplier  Tables  from  Atmospheric 
Pressure  to  Three-Pound  Basis. 

Each  table  includes  multipliers  from  2o  inches  of  mercurv 
minus  pressure  or  "vacuum"  up  to  500  pound  pressure. 

All  Multipliers  expressed  in  five  decimals. 

Pocket  size.  60  pages  (4:^  inches  x  73^^  inches)  clearly 
printed  from  new  type,  on  special  paper.  Bound  in  silk 
cloth.     Title  in  Gold. 


PRICE  FIFTY  CENTS  CASH  WITH  ORDER 


PUBLISHED   BY 

METRIC    METAL    WORKS 

ERIE,     PENN'A 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last 
date  stamped  below. 


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^UU   X  ?  195£ 
JUM  2  2  1955 


DEC 


8  ym 


m  am 


10M-11-50 '2555) 470  remington  rand  inc.  20 


Engineering 
Library 

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no 


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